Nervous system.

The Nervous System

Example 1: Consider the following case:
Walking barefooted and suddenly stepping
on broken glass.

 What happens?
a) Sense the piercing of glass
b) Message is sent to the brain
c) Brain integrates the message
d) Message is sent to the leg to effect appropriate
action
i.e Withdrawal of leg

NB: Some of the message is also sent to the mouth

for cursing!!!
 The Nervous System
 The nervous system provides communication network between
senses, environment and body parts.

 Nervous system has three overlapping functions:

a) Detecting changes in the internal and external environments using
sensory receptors (Sensory input)

b) Evaluating the information and deciding what should be done

(Integration)

c) Responding by initiating changes in muscles or glands (Motor

output)

 The nervous system is always at work and requires large

amounts of energy to keep it operational.

o 25% of basal metabolic rate in man is used by the nervous system.

 The Nervous System
Example 2: Consider yourself driving in
Blantyre town along the highway.

i. As you approach the traffic lights near

chipiku shop you see a red light (Sensory
input)

ii. Your nervous system integrates this

information (Red light means “stop”)

iii. Your foot goes for the break (motor output)

 Organization of the Nervous System

Nervous
System

Peripheral
Central Nervous
Nervous System
System (CNS)
(PNS)

Spinal Afferent Efferent

Brain
cord (sensory) NS (motor) NS

Somatic Nervous Autonomic

System Nervous System

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division division
 Organization of the Nervous System
 The CNS consist of brain and spinal cord and is responsible for
integrating the incoming sensory information from the various
receptors and initiating an appropriate response.

The Brain
 Contains billions of interacting cells, integrating information
from inside and outside the body, coordinates body’s actions,
enable us to talk, think, remember, plan, create and dream.

Spinal Cord
 Connects brain to the rest of the body. Runs from the base of the
brain to just below the waist. It houses nerves that carry
commands from the brain to peripheral nerves and also relaying
sensations to the brain from the PNS.
 Organization of the Nervous System
 Paralysis in most cases results from spinal cord damage ensuing
failure to transmit signals from the brain to the body’s muscles.

 The peripheral nervous system consists of paired nerves,

which arise either directly from the brain, called cranial nerves,
or from the spinal cord , known as spinal nerves.

 NB. Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed
together in the peripheral nervous system.

 Afferentnervous system consists of all the sensory nerve

pathways. Convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors.

 Efferent nervous system consists of the motor nerve pathways.

Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs.
 Organization of the Nervous System
 The efferent nervous system is further subdivided into the
somatic and autonomic systems.

 Somatic nerves carry impulses to skeletal muscles (also called

voluntary nervous system). Autonomic nerves carry
impulses to smooth muscles, the heart, blood vessels, and
glands (also called involuntary nervous system).

 As the name suggests, the autonomic NS is autonomous. It

controls automatic involuntary, visceral functions that people
don’t normally think about, such as heart rate, digestion and
perspiration.

 When people experience emotions it is the autonomic nervous

system that arouse such physiological changes in the body.
 Organization of the Nervous System
 Example 3: You are walking alone at night and all of a sudden
you hear heavy footsteps behind you.

 If you feel threatened by this, you will experience the following:

◦ Your heart rate and breathing will speed up
◦ Your blood pressure may surge
◦ You may get goose bumps
◦ Your palms may begin to sweat

 These difficult to control reactions are aspects of the autonomic

nervous system.

 The reaction explained above is called the fight-or-flight

response. It prepares you physically to for attacking (fight) of
fleeing (flight) the enemy.
 Organization of the Nervous System
 Autonomic nervous system is again divided into sympathetic
and the parasympathetic divisions.

 The sympathetic division creates the fight-or-flight response

 Activation of the sympathetic division slows digestive

processes, drains blood from the periphery, lessening bleeding
in the case of injury, signals to adrenal gland trigger release of
the hormone adrenaline making the body ready for action.

 The parasympathetic division conserves bodily resources.

Activates processes that allow the body to save and store
energy e.g. slowing the heart rate, reduce blood pressure, and
promote digestion.
 Organization of the Nervous System
Parasympathetic Sympathetic Division
division (Conserve) (mobilize)
Pupils constricted Pupils dilated
Salivation stimulated Salivation inhibited

Bronchial passage constricted Bronchial passage dilated

Decreased respiration Increased respiration
Decreased heart rate Increased heart rate

Digestion stimulated Digestion inhibited

Secretion of adrenal hormones

Increased secretion by sweat glands

Hair follicles raised, goose bumps
Bladder contracted Bladder relaxed
 The Nervous Tissue
Brain
- Command centre of the nervous system

- Involved in almost all body functions

- Human brains are more complex and larger than other

animals

- Functions include:
- Recording history
- Reasoning
- Planning

- How the brain actually function is an elusive physiology and

anatomy topic which will not be exhaustively covered in
this short course.
 The Nervous Tissue
Brain continued
- The brain is always at work and requires
enormous amounts of energy
- Much of the energy used by the brain serves to:
a) maintain ionic gradients across plasma membranes of NS
cells
b) Synthesis of neurotransmitters and other cellular
components
Brain macromolecules worth noting:-
i. Complex and specialized lipids present are not metabolized
– they function to maintain structure and integrity
ii. Proteins have rapid turnover rate although further division of
brain cells is not possible. ~12 billion cells at birth.
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
Cells of the Nervous system
Nervous tissue is made up of two principle cell types:

Neuroglia or glial cells – protect and support the neurons by wrapping

around them.

Neurons – the excitable nerve cells that transmit electrical signals

Types of neurons
Sensory neurons – have receptors or are associated with receptor cells.
- Function by transmitting signals to CNS

Motor Neurons – transmit impulses from CNS cells to muscles and glands

Interneurons – Process and integrate information received from different

sensory systems
- make up the CNS (brain and spinal cord)
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
Four Types of Neuroglia or glial cells in CNS
a) Astrocytes – most abundant. Their radiating
processes cling to neurons and synaptic endings
- anchor neurons to blood capillaries
- ‘mop up’ leaked potassium ions and
recapture released neurotransmitters.

Insert picture of astrocyte

 Histology of Nervous Tissue
Types of Neuroglia or glial cells in CNS
b) Microglia – small ovoid cells with relatively long thorny
processes. These touch nearby neurons, monitoring their health.
- can transform into a special type of macrophage that
phagocytizes invading microorganisms and debris from dying
neurons.
- This protective role is important because cells of the immune
system have no access to the CNS.

Insert picture of Microglia

 Histology of Nervous Tissue
Types of Neuroglia or glial cells in CNS
c) Ependymal cells – squamous to columnar in shape and
most are ciliated.
- Line central cavities of the brain and spinal cord
- Beating of the cilia helps circulate cerebrospinal fluid that
cushions the brain and spinal cord.

Insert picture of Ependymal cell

 Histology of Nervous Tissue
Types of Neuroglia or glial cells in CNS
d) Oligodendrocytes – have fewer processes than astrocytes
- Line up along the thicker neuron fibers in the CNS and
wrap their processes tightly around the fibers
- Produce insulating coverings called myelin sheath

Insert picture of Oligodendrocyte

 Histology of Nervous Tissue
Neuroglia in the peripheral Nervous System
a) Satellite cells – surround neuron cell bodies located in the
peripheral nervous system.
- Functions are much similar to those of astrocytes in CNS
b) Schwann cells – (also called neurolemmocytes) form
myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the PNS.
Functionally similar to oligodendrocytes, producing
insulating covering called myelin sheath

Insert picture of Satellite Cells and Schwann cells

The schwann cell rotates around the axon,
wrapping its plasma membrane loosely around
it in successive layers
 The Nervous Tissue
Neurons
 Also called nerve cells, are individual cells in the nervous
system that receive, integrate and transmit information.

1. Have extreme longevity – with good nutrition, they can function

optimally for over 100 years.

2. They are amitotic – lose ability to divide, hence cannot be

replaced if destroyed.
Exceptions: olfactory epithilium and some hippocampal
regions (memory region) have stem cells that can
produce new neurons throughout life.

3. Have high metabolic rate – requires abundant supplies of

oxygen and glucose. Cannot survive a few minutes without
oxygen.
 The Nervous Tissue
Neurons
 Although they vary in structure they all
have a cell body and one or more slender
processes.

 Their plasma membrane is the site for

electrical signaling.

 In terms of structure, neurons are

categorized as unipolar, dipolar, and
multipolar (Slide 26)
 The Neuron

Dendrites

Soma Myelin
Axon Sheath

Node of Ranvier Terminal button

 Parts of the Neuron
 Cell body (soma) – contains the nucleus and much of the chemical
composition of most cells.
- Information handling.
- Most cell bodies are located in the CNS protected by the skull and
vertebral column.
- Clusters of cell bodies in CNS are called nuclei while those
lying along nerves in PNS are called ganglia.

 Dendrites – these emerge from the cell body.

- Provides large surface area for receiving information from other
neurons
- Sends messages to cell body in form of graded potentials (see
later).

 Axon – a long thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to
other neurons or muscles or glands.
-These are quite long and may branch off to communicate with a
number of cells.
 Parts of the Neuron
Myelin sheath – a fatty substance that acts as an
insulating material that encases long or large axons in a
segmented manner.
- Speeds up transmission.
- Membrane lacks channel and carrier proteins
hence good insulators

Multiple sclerosis is loss of muscle control due to

degeneration of myelin sheaths.

Terminal buttons – small knobs that secrete chemicals

called neurotransmitters.

Synapse – a junction where information is transmitted

 Parts of the Neuron
Schwan Cells and oligondendrocytes
-These are specialized cells that wrap the axon and are
characterized by a myelin sheath

-The cells are punctuated by Nodes of Ranvier

- Nodes of Ranvier are regions of high electric activity and

are important for the transmission of nerve impulses.

- Nodes of Ranvier are about 1mm wide and they also serve
as sites where axon collaterals (branches) can emerge.
 Neurons are Diverse in Structure

Back to
slide 2
2
 Parts of the Neuron
Clinical Note
– Myelin sheath that cover axons normally begin to form
late in fetal development

– The process proceeds rapidly up to the first year after

birth and continues slowly there after

– Development of myelin sheath is associated with infant’s

development of rapid and coordinated movements and
responses

– In cases where the myelin sheath is gradually destroyed

e.g. in multiple sclerosis and Diabetes Mellitus
– There is decreased action potential transmission
– There is impaired control of skeletal and smooth muscles
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
Role of Membrane Ion Channels
 Leakage or nongated channels – are always open

 Chemically gated or ligand-gated channels – opens only

when an appropreate chemical (e.g. neurotransmitter) binds
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
Role of Membrane Ion Channels
Voltage gated channels – open and close in
response to changes in the membrane
potential
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
Resting Potential

 Both inside and outside the neurone are fluids containing

electrically charged atoms and molecules called ions

 Positive charged potassium (K +) and sodium (Na+) ions and

negatively charged chloride ions (cl -) flow back and forth
across the cell membrane.

 The difference in flow rates leads to a higher concentration

of negatively charged ions inside the neuron cell.

 The resting potential of a neuron is its stable, negative

charge which is estimated at -70mv (millivolts) when the
neuron is not transmitting.
Membrane potential in neurones at resting
state
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
Resting Potential
The concentrations of Na+ and K+ on each side of the
membrane are different. More K+ inside than outside
and more N+ outside than inside.
K+ loss through abundant leakage channels
establishes a negative membrane potential.
Membrane is highly permeable to K+ and it
flows down its concentration gradient

Na+ entry through leakage channels

slightly reduces the negative
membrane potential. Na+ flows
down its concentration gradient into
the neuron but the membrane is less
permeable to Na+.

Na+-K+ ATPases (pumps) maintain

the concentration gradients, resulting
in the resting membrane potential.
Counteracts the above leakage
channels
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
Generation of Action Potential
When the neuron is stimulated, channels in its
membrane open, briefly allowing positively
charged Na+ ions to flow in.

Charge inside the neurone becomes less

negative and eventually positive.

This voltage change spreads in the vicinity of

the point of stimulus (See Diagram Next
Slide).
Nerve Impulse Transmission

Depolarization - A small patch

of the membrane has become
depolarized

Spread of depolarization – the

local currents that are created
depolarize adjacent areas and allow
the wave of depolarization to spread.

Decay of membrane potential

with distance – current is lost
through leak channels, voltage
declines with distance from the
stimulus
Nerve Impulse Transmission

Action Potential
 An action potential is this very
brief shift in a neuron’s electrical
charge that travels along the axon.

 After firing of an action potential,

the channels in the cell membrane
that opened to let in sodium close
up.

 Some time is required before they

can open again
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
Action Potential continued
 Absolute refractory period – the minimum length of
time after an action potential during which another
action potential cannot begin (about 1 millisecond).
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
The All-or-None Principle
The neuron can act in such a way that it can either
fire or not, just like a gun.

Action potentials are of the same size. Weaker stimuli

do not produce smaller action potentials

Strength of the stimulus is conveyed by the rate of

action potentials. Strong stimuli evokes rapid action
potentials

Thicker axons transmit faster than thin ones,

myelination also helps speed up nerve impulse
 The Synapse
The impulse passes from one neuron to another across
specialized junctions called synapses.

The synaptic cleft is a microscopic gap between the

terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane
of another neuron.

There are two main type of synapses:

1. Electrical synapse – membranes of two adjacent neurons are so
close, about 2nm, such that the wave of electrical excitation can
pass directly from one to the next.

2. Chemical synapse – the gap is about 20nm, too large for direct
electrical transmission. The arrival of an impulse at the
presynaptic neuron triggers release of a chemical transmitter
substance, the neurotransmitter (NT).
 Mechanism of Chemical Synaptic Transmission

 NB. The neuron that sends a signal across the

synapse is called the presynaptic neuron and the one
that receives the signal is the postsynaptic neuron.

1. Arrival of action potential at terminal button of

presynaptic neuron triggers release of
neurotransmitter from small sacs called synaptic
vesicles into the synaptic cleft.

2. Neurotransmitter then diffuses across the synaptic

cleft to the membrane of postsynaptic neuron.
Receptors on postsynaptic neurons are specific to
particular neurotransmitters and not others.
Mechanism of Chemical Synaptic Transmission

 Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors on

postsynaptic membrane results in generation of a
postsynaptic potential (PSP)

 PSP is simply a voltage change at the receptor site

on a postsynaptic cell membrane. There are two
types:

1. Excitatory PSP (EPSP)– this is a depolarization or a positive

voltage shift that increases the likelihood of the neuron firing.

2. Inhibitory PSP (IPSP)– this is a hyperpolarization or a

negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood of the
neuron firing action potentials.
Mechanism of Chemical Synaptic Transmission

 Postsynaptic potentials are graded. They vary in size,

which in turn determines whether a nerve impulse will
be generated in the postsynaptic cell.

 Spatial summation and temporal summation

 Whether an EPSP or IPSP will be produced depends on

which receptor sites are activated on the postsynaptic
neuron.

 Neurotransmitter effect is short lived as they easily

drift away from receptor sites or are inactivated by
enzymes. Most are reabsorbed into the presynaptic
 Neurotransmitters and Behavior
 Neurotransmitters are fundamental to behavior,
they play a key role in muscle movement, moods
and mental health.

 There are nine (9) well established

neurotransmitters but more and more are being
discovered.

 Specific neurotransmitters function at

specific synapses (Lock and key model).

 This specificity reduces cross talk between neurons

making the nervous system’s communication more
 Neurotransmitters and Behavior
Acetylcholine (Ach)

 The only transmitter between motor neurons and voluntary muscles.

 Every move you make – walking, talking, breathing – depends on Ach

release to the muscles.

 Activity of Ach may be influenced by other chemicals in the brain.

 If you smoke tobacco, the nicotine acts like Ach (agonist). It binds
receptors for Ach causing PSPs.

 Some chemicals bind to the receptors but do not produce PSPs. They just
block the receptors from binding to neurotransmitter (antagonist).

 Example, the drug curare is an Ach antagonist. It binds to Ach receptors

resulting in paralysis.

 Some South American natives use a form of curare on their arrows. If

 Neurotransmitters and Behavior
Monoamines include three NTs: dopamine, noradrenalin and serotonin)

Dopamine used by neurons that control voluntary movements

 Degeneration of dopamine secreting neurons cause Parkinson’s disease –

tremors, muscular rigidity and reduced control over voluntary movements.

 Abnormalities in activity at dopamine receptors have been implicated in

severe mental illness, irrational thought and hallucinations.

 Serotonin plays prominent role in regulation of sleep and wakefulness

and eating behavior.

 Lowered level of activation at norepinephrine (NE) and serotonin

synapses leads to depression. Antidepressant drugs tend to exert their
effects at these synapses.

 Cocaine is a stimulant drug that creates increased activity at dopamine

and norepinephrine synapses. That’s why addicts behave in a strange way.
 Neurotransmitters and Behavior
Endorphins

 Morphine, a powerful opiate addictive drug, used as a pain killer

when one is in great pain and it’s derived from the opium plant.

 It exerts it’s effects by binding to specific receptors in the brain.

 Other substances include codeine and heroin.

 The brain has it’s own endogenous morphinelike substance called

endorphins.

 Endorphins are internally produced chemicals that resemble

opiates in structure and effetcs.

 Endorphins and their receptors are widely distributed in the human

body and they contribute to the modulation of pain.