Real cycle analysis

 Real cycle analysis

 Turbojet engine
 Turbojet with afterburning
 Turbofan engine
 Turboprop and turboshaft engines
Real cycle for turbojet engines

 Schematic of a turbojet engine and station numbering scheme

International standard atmosphere
Real Cycle For Turbojet Engines

Real turbojet cycle (without afterburning) on a T-s diagram

Real cycle for turbojet engines

 For cycle analysis we shall take up each component and

determine the exit conditions based on known inlet
parameters.
 Intake: Ambient pressure, temperature and Mach number are
known, Pa, Ta and M
Inlets and Diffusers

 Purpose:

1. Capture incoming stream tube (mass flow)

2. Condition flow for entrance into compressor (and/or fan) over full flight
range
 At take-off (M0~0), accelerate flow to 0.4 < M2 < 0.7
 At cruise (M0~0.85), slow down flow to 0.4 < M2 < 0.7
 Remain as insensitive as possible to angle of attack, cross-flow, etc.

 Requirements
1. Bring inlet flow to engine with high possible stagnation pressure
 Measured by inlet pressure recovery, pd = P02/P01
2. Provide required engine mass flow
 May be limited by choking of inlet
3. Provide compressor (and/or fan) with uniform flow
 Inlet and Diffuser

 Subsonic diffusers
 Need to supply air to the engine at the Mach number the compressor

demands (0.4 - 0.5)

 Need to be efficient over range of free-stream Mach numbers from take-

off to cruise
 Modern computational tools enable efficient inlets with stagnation

pressure recoveries greater than 0.95

 Supersonic diffusers
 Shock waves exist and introduce a loss mechanism

 Very large variations in capture stream tube area

 Inlet compression is a larger fraction of the overall compression process

and overall cycle efficiency is thus more sensitive to inlet design

 Schematic Diagrams of Subsonic and Supersonic Inlets and
Diffusers
8
 Air Intake Performance

T
T02 = T0a = ηi

Va2/2cp Toa=Ta+Va2/2Cp

T02s – Ta= ηdVa2/2Cp

T02s / Ta – 1 = ηdVa2/2Cp
Actual and ideal intake processes
T02s / Ta = 1+ ηdVa2/2Cp
Air Intake Performance

 Isentropic efficiency, ηd, of the diffuser is

P02 / Pa = (T02s / Ta) γ/γ-1

P02 / Pa = (1+ ηdVa2/2CpTa) γ/γ-1

M2 = V2/C2, C2 = γRT , Cp= γR/ γ-1

 The stagnation temperature T01 can also be expressed as a function of

Mach number a head of the inlet
Toa=Ta+Va2/2Cp , Toa/Ta =1+Va2/2TaCp =
Effect of Mass Flow on Thrust Variation

m 2   2V2 A2
 Mass flow into compressor = mass flow
entering engine
m 2 P  Re-write to eliminate density and velocity
  2V2  2 M 2 RT2  P2

M2
A2 RT2 RT2
 Connect to stagnation conditions at station
m 2  M2 2
 P02  1
A2 RT2
  1 2  2  1
1  M2 
 2 

 1
m a Pa    1 2  2  1 M2 Connect to ambient conditions
 1  M2   1


A2 RTa  2    1 2  2  1
1  M2 
 2 
 Resulting expression for thrust
 Shows dependence on atmospheric
pressure and cross-sectional area at
FT  F  m 
  T  a aa compressor or fan entrance
A2 Pa  m a aa  A2 Pa   Valid for any gas turbine
 Non-Dimensional Thrust for A2 and P0

Plot of Thrust Normalized by Compressor Inlet Area and Ambient Pressure

vs. Flight Mach Number for Compressor Inlet Mach Number, M2=0.5 Tt4
30  t
Theta_t=6 T0
Theta_t=9
25
Define the ratio of
20 the burner exit
Thrust / (A2 P0)

temperature to the
15 ambient
temperature
10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Mach Number
 Thrust at fixed altitude is nearly constant up to Mach 1
 Thrust then increases rapidly, need A2 to get smaller
Representative Values of Inlet/Diffuser Stagnation Pressure Recovery as
a Function of Flight Mach Number
 Representative Values of Inlet/Diffuser Stagnation
Pressure Recovery as a Function of Flight Mach Number
14
 Two Primary Types of Compressors

 Axial Devices  Radial (Centrifugal) Devices

 High mass flow  Can not handle as high mass flow

 High efficiency  Less efficient than axial device

 Stackable (multi-staging)  Short length

 More parts  Robust

 More complex  Less Parts

 Centrifugal Compressors
16
Real cycle for turbojet engines
Real cycle for turbojet engines
Real cycle for turbojet engines

ηm is mechanical efficiency
Air-Breathing Engines
Gas Turbine Engine Nozzles
Nozzles

 Subsonic Aircraft:

 Usually a fixed area convergent nozzle is adequate

 Can be more complex for noise suppression

 Supersonic Aircraft:
 More complex, variable-area, convergent-divergent device
 Two Primary Functions:

1. Provide required throat area to match mass flow and exit conditions

2. Efficiently expand high pressure, high temperature gases to atmospheric

pressure (convert thermal energy → kinetic energy)
Nozzles
Operation of Converging-Diverging Nozzles
 Operation of Converging-Diverging Nozzles

All Practical Aerospace Nozzles Operate In Regimes (e)-(g)

 Operation of C-D Nozzles

 Figure (a) shows the flow through the nozzle when it is completely subsonic (i.e. nozzle isn't choked).
The flow accelerates out of the chamber through the converging section, reaching its maximum
(subsonic) speed at the throat. The flow then decelerates through the diverging section and exhausts
into the ambient as a subsonic jet. Lowering the back pressure in this state increases the flow speed
everywhere in the nozzle.

 Further lowering pb results in figure (b). The flow pattern is exactly the same as in subsonic flow,
except that the flow speed at the throat has just reached Mach 1. Flow through the nozzle is now
choked since further reductions in the back pressure can't move the point of M=1 away from the
throat. However, the flow pattern in the diverging section does change as the back pressure is lowered
further.

 As pb is lowered below that needed to just choke the flow a region of supersonic flow forms just
downstream of the throat. Unlike a subsonic flow, the supersonic flow accelerates as the area gets
bigger. This region of supersonic acceleration is terminated by a normal shock wave. The shock wave
produces a near-instantaneous deceleration of the flow to subsonic speed. This subsonic flow then
decelerates through the remainder of the diverging section and exhausts as a subsonic jet. In this
regime if the back pressure is lowered or raised the length of supersonic flow in the diverging section
before the shock wave increases or decreases.
Operation of C-D Nozzles

 If pb is lowered enough the supersonic region may be extended all the way down the nozzle
until the shock is sitting at the nozzle exit, figure (d). Because of the very long region of
acceleration (the entire nozzle length) the flow speed just before the shock will be very large.
However, after the shock the flow in the jet will still be subsonic.

 Lowering the back pressure further causes the shock to bend out into the jet, figure (e), and a
complex pattern of shocks and reflections is set up in the jet which will now involve a mixture
of subsonic and supersonic flow, or (if the back pressure is low enough) just supersonic flow.
Because the shock is no longer perpendicular to the flow near the nozzle walls, it deflects it
inward as it leaves the exit producing an initially contracting jet. We refer to this as over-
expanded flow because in this case the pressure at the nozzle exit is lower than that in the
ambient (the back pressure)- i.e. the flow has been expanded by the nozzle too much.

 A further lowering of the back pressure changes and weakens the wave pattern in the jet.
Eventually, the back pressure will be lowered enough so that it is now equal to the pressure at
the nozzle exit. In this case, the waves in the jet disappear altogether, figure (f), and the jet will
be uniformly supersonic. This situation, since it is often desirable, is referred to as the ‘design
condition’, Pe=Pa.
Operation of C-D Nozzles

 Finally, if the back pressure is lowered even further we will create a new imbalance
between the exit and back pressures (exit pressure greater than back pressure), figure
(g). In this situation, called under-expanded, expansion waves that produce gradual
turning and acceleration in the jet form at the nozzle exit, initially turning the flow at
the jet edges outward in a plume and setting up a different type of complex wave
pattern.

 Summary Points to Remember:

 When flow accelerates (sub or supersonically) pressure always drops

 Pressure rises instantaneously across a shock
 Pressure falls across an expansion wave
 Pressure throughout jet is always same as ambient (i.e. the back pressure) unless
jet is supersonic and there are shocks or expansion waves in jet to produce
pressure differences
Key Equations for Nozzle Design

Nozzle area ratio as a function of engine parameters

Once nozzle area is set, operating point of engine depends only on stagnation
temperature ratio  1
   1
2 
A7 Athroat P02 T07   1 
  M2 
1   1
A2 A2 P07 T02
 M 22 
 2 
A7 is the throat area, how do we find the exit area of the nozzle?
Found from compressible channel flow relations, recall that M 7=1
Set by jet stagnation pressure and ambient

 1
  1 2  2  1
1
1 
M8 
A8 A 2
 exit   
A7 Athroat M8    1 
 
 2 
Real cycle for turbojet engines
Comments on Noise Reduction Using Nozzles

 Environmental issues are likely to impose fundamental limitation on air

transportation growth in the 21st century
 2 major contributors: NOISE and EMISSIONS

 Noise
 Primarily exhaust jet and fan (whirl) noise

 Noise impact of subsonic aircraft is constrains air transportation system

through curfews, noise budgets and slot restrictions

 Some solutions
 Exhaust mixers
 Liners that absorb sound
 Shaping of stators and fan blade components for low noise
Sources of Engine Noise
Influence of Bypass Ratio: Relative Perceived
Noise Level Vs. Bypass Ratio

 Increasing bypass ratio increases the fan noise moderately

 Increasing bypass ratio decreases the jet noise dramatically
Real cycle for turbojet engines

 Real turbojet cycle (with afterburning) on a T-s diagram

Real cycle for turbojet engines

 Afterburning: used when the aircraft needs a substantial

increment in thrust. For eg. to accelerate to and cruise at
supersonic speeds.

 Since the air-fuel ratio in gas turbine engines are much

greater than the stoichiometric values, there is sufficient
amount of air available for combustion at the turbine exit.

 There are no rotating components like a turbine in the

afterburner, the temperatures can be taken to much higher
values than that at turbine entry.
Real cycle for turbojet engines

 For calculating the fuel flow rate required to achieve a

temperature of T6a, we carry out an energy balance similar to
that of the combustor.

 The total fuel flow rate, f, is equal to the sum of the fuel flow
rates in the main combustor and the afterburner.

f = f1+ f2

 Where f1is the fuel flow rate in the main combustor and f 2, the
fuel flow rate in the afterburner.
Real cycle for turbofan engines

 A turbofan engine can have different configurations: Twin-

spool, three-spool, and geared turbofan. These may be either
unmixed or mixed.

 Cycle analysis of a turbofan can hence be slightly different

depending upon the configuration of the engine.

 We shall now carry out an real cycle analysis of an unmixed

twin-spool turbofan engine.
Real cycle for turbofan engines

Schematic of an unmixed turbofan engine and station numbering scheme

Real cycle for turbofan engines

 Intake: Ambient pressure, temperature and Mach

number are known, Pa, Ta and M
 Intake exit stagnation temperature and pressure are
determined from the isentropic relations:
Real cycle for turbofan engines