Performance Characteristics of

Instruments

1
Text Book: J.P Holman
 INTRODUCTION
 Instrument to be used is decided on the characteristics
required.
 A temperature measuring instrument with accuracy
of 0.5o C may be allowable for human body
(feeling). However, it may be useless in a control system.
So for selection the performance characteristics of
measuring instruments must be known.
 Instrument performance characteristics are generally
broken down into two:
 Static characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
 are the set of performance for applications that
involve the measurement of quantities which
are constant or vary only quite slowly
 These characteristics generally show up as non-
linear and statistical effects.
 Since static characteristics affect the dynamic
behavior, the overall performance is then
judged by a semi-quantitative superposition of
the static and dynamic characteristics
STATIC CALIBRATION:
 determining or checking the system’s scale by using
known standard quantities as inputs (fixed or variable
inputs) and noting down the outputs to finally
develop input output relationships.
 This procedure can be used as a periodic check for a
known instrument or for scaling a new instrument.
 Theoretically interfering and modifying inputs are held
constant during calibration.
 Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
 i. a primary standard
 ii. a secondary standard
 iii. a known input source
o Example: weighing a tank of water in the given interval of time
to determine the flow rate
READABILITY:
 Indicates the closeness with which the scale of
the instrument may be read.
 Example: an instrument which sweeps through
180o will have a higher readability than another
instrument which sweeps through 90o for the
same range of measurement
LEAST COUNT:
 Is the smallest difference between two
indications that can be detected on the
instrument scale
SENSITIVITY
 Static sensitivity is
defined as the ratio of the
change in output to the
corresponding change in
input under static or
steady-state condition
 i.e. the slope of the
calibration curve.
 The sensitivity can be
linear or non-linear.
  Sensitivity can be affected by
 interfering and modifying inputs.
 The effects are indicated as zero and sensitivity drift respectively as shown
in
 Zero drift or bias
 describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by
a change in the ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that exists
over the full range of measurement of the instrument.

 Sensitivity drift or scale

factor drift
 defines the amount by which
an instrument’s sensitivity of
measurement varies as
ambient conditions change.
It is quantified by sensitivity
drift coefficient. Example
 Both effects can be evaluated by running suitable calibration tests.
 If elements of a system having static sensitivities of K1, K2, K3,…,
are connected in series or cascaded,

the overall system sensitivity K is given by K = K1 x K2 x K3 x …

provided that there is no alteration in the values of K1, K2, K3,…,
due to loading.
 Sensitivity, gain, and magnification are the terms used to mean the
same.
Linearity
 It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is
linearly proportional to the quantity being measured. Based on this
convenience linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from a
linear relationship between input and output – i.e. from a constant
sensitivity (least square fitting) and is usually expressed as a
percentage of full scale reading.
2.2.6 Threshold
If the instrument input is increased very gradually
from zero, there will be some minimum value below
which no output change can be detected.

10
Threshold
 If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero,
there will be some minimum value below which no output
change can be detected.
 This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
 Manufacturers specify it as absolute value or percentage of full scale
reading.
2.2.7 Resolution
This defines the smallest measurable input change that will
permit the detection of change in the output.
2.2.8 Hysteresis
This is an effect of producing different readings when the
measured quantity is approached from above or below. It may
be the result of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, or
thermal effects. 2nd law-irreversibility.
This minimum value defines the threshold of the
instrument. Manufacturers specify it as absolute
value or percentage of full scale reading.
2.2.7 Resolution
This defines the smallest measurable input change that
will permit the detection of change in the output.
2.2.8 Hysteresis
This is an effect of producing different readings when
the measured quantity is approached from above or
below. It may be the result of mechanical friction,
magnetic effects, or thermal effects. 2 nd law-
irreversibility.
12
 Curve B
Variable decreasing
Output
variable

Curve A-Variable increasing

Maximum
output hysteresis

Measured variable

Maximum input
hysteresis

Dead Space

Fig. 2. 4 Instrument characteristic with hysteresis

13
2.2.9 Accuracy
This is the term used to indicate the closeness with
which the indications of an instrument approach the
true values of the quantities measured. Inaccuracy
is the extent to which reading might be wrong and it
is usually expressed as a percentage of full scale
reading. A 1% accuracy over a full scale reading
pressure of 100 kPa will be accurate within  1
kPa. If this instrument is used to measure 5 kPa,
then the possible error will be 20% !
Such plus or minus inaccuracies are also termed as
measurement uncertainties.
14
2.2.10 Precision
It indicates the ability of an instrument to reproduce a
certain reading with a given accuracy. If there is no
reproducibility, then the instrument is said to have a
drift.
As an example for a true value of 100 V, measured
values are 104, 103, 105, 100, 105.
The accuracy is  5 V.
Precision is maximum deviation from mean.
Mean = 104 Max. deviation =  1 V
Precision is 1%.
15
It may be noted that the instrument could be calibrated
so that it could be used to dependably measure
voltages within  1 V. This conveys the message
that accuracy can be improved but not beyond the
precision of the instrument.

16
 Low precision High precision High precision
Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy

Fig.2.5 Comparison of accuracy and precision

17
2.2.11 Errors
There are two types of errors in measurements,
namely systematic and random errors.
 Systematic or fixed errors or bias
These types of errors will cause repeated readings to
be in error by the same amount. These are related to
calibration errors and they can be eliminated by
correct calibration.
Accuracy is related to such type of errors
 Random errors
These are caused by personal fluctuations, random
electronic fluctuations in the instruments, various
18
influences of friction, etc. They usually follow certain
statistical distribution.
Such errors are related to precision.
2.3 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument
describe its behavior when input varies with time
such that the instrument response will have transient
and steady state parts.
The most widely used mathematical model for the
study of measurement-system dynamic response is
the ordinary linear differential equation with
constant coefficients of the form
19
 n n 1
d qo d qo dq o
a n n  a n 1 n 1  ...  a1  a oq o
dt dt dt
m m 1
d qi d qi dq i
 b m m  b m 1 m 1  ...  b1  b oq i
dt dt dt
(nth order)
d
If we define the differential operator D  the above
dt
equation can be written as
n 1
(a n D  a n 1D
n
 ...  a1D  a o )q o
m 1
 ( b m D  b m 1D
m
 ...  b1D  bo )q i
20
Operational transfer function relating output q o and
input qi is defined, in a general manner, as follows.
qo bm D m  bm 1 D m 1  ...  b1 D  bo
( D) 
qi an D n  an 1 D n 1  ...  a1 D  ao

As a block diagram the operational transfer function

can be presented as shown below.

21
The block diagram representation can be extended if
the overall operational transfer function is the result
of individual component transfer functions as shown
below.

22
The method of undetermined coefficients or Laplace-
transform method can be used to get the solution.
Here the former will be used.
In this method the general solution is given by
qo = qocf + qopi
where
qocf = complementary function part of solution
qopi = particular-integral part of solution
The solution qocf is determined from the algebraic
characteristic equation
n 1 ode-solutions.docx
a n D  a n 1D
n
 ...  a1D  a o  0
23
2.3.1 Zero-Order Instrument
The simplest possible special case of the general
dynamic equation is when all the a’s and b’s other
than ao and bo are assumed to be zero. The
differential equation then degenerates into the
simple algebraic equation
aoqo = boqi
Any instrument that closely obeys the above equation
is defined to be a zero-order instrument. The two
constants can be combined to give
bo
q o  q i  Kq i
ao
24
where K=bo/ao = static sensitivity
The above equation shows that no matter how q i might
vary with time, the instrument output follows it
perfectly with no distortion or time lag of any sort.
Thus the zero-order instrument represents ideal or
perfect dynamic performance.
A practical example of a zero-order instrument is the
displacement measuring potentiometer. Referring to
Fig. 2.6(a) and fig_chp2\fig2.6.pptx linear
distribution of resistance along length L, the output
voltage
x i eo can be written as
e o  E b  Kq i
L
25
Fig.2. 6 (a) Zero-order instrument (linear response)
26
2.3.2 First Order Instruments
All a’s and b’s except a1,ao,bo are taken as zero. The
resulting equation is
dq o
a1  a oq o  b oq i
dt
Division by ao reduces the No. of coefficients by one
as
a1 dq o bo bo
 qo  qi K
a o dt ao ao

Defining τ ≡ a1/ao
27
The above equation gives
(τD + 1) qo = Kqi
τ is a time constant and always has dimension of time.
As an example of a first order instrument let us apply
this to a thermometer (liquid in a glass)
fig_chp2\fig2.7.pptx
The input is Ti(t) which varies with time and the
output is xo (thermometer liquid level change). If
the liquid level is at xo and using the following
definitions
Ttf=temperature of liquid in bulb (uniform), T tf = 0 at
xo =0 28
Kex = differential expansion coefficient of
thermometer fluid and bulb glass, (m 3/m3 oC)
Vb = Volume of bulb, (m3)
Ac = cross-sectional area of capillary tube, (m 2)
Displaced volume and volumetric expansion of liquid
in the bulb are related as
xo Ac = Kex Vb Ttf
This will give
K exVbTtf xo Ac
xo  or Ttf 
Ac K exVb
To get the differential equation we will use the 29
time dt for the thermometer bulb as follows:
Heat rate in – Heat rate out = energy storage rate
dTtf
UA b (Ti  Ttf )  0  Vb c
dt
U=overall heat transfer coefficient across bulb wall,
(W/m2)
Ab = heat transfer area of bulb wall, (m 2)
ρ = mass density of thermometer liquid (kg/m 3)
c = specific heat of thermometer liquid (J/kg m 2 )
The above equation can be rewritten as
dTtf
Vb c  UA bTtf  UA bTi
dt 30
Using the equation that relates Ttf and xo which is
dTtf A c dx o

dt K ex Vb dt
And substitution in the differential equation gives
A c dx o x oAc
Vb c  UA b  UA bTi
K ex Vb dt K ex Vb
cA c dx o UA b A c
 x o  UA bTi
K ex dt K ex Vb

Defining
cA c UA b A c
a1  ao  bo  UA b
K ex K ex Vb
31
This will give
dx o
a1  a o x o  boTi
dt
Again defining
a1 cVb bo K exVb
  (s) K  o
(m / C )
ao UAb ao Ac

results in the following ODE

dx o
  x o  KTi or
dt
 ( D  1) x o  KTi 32
As can be seen clearly, the solution depends on the
type of input. Four types of inputs will be dealt
with.
 Step Input
Initially the system is in equilibrium with q i=qo=0 and
at time t=0+ the input quantity increases instantly by
an amount qis. This will make the initial condition
qi=qis at t=0+.
The differential equation is
(τD +1)qo = Kqis
The solutions are
33
q =Ce-t/τ and q = Kq
This gives the complete solution as
qo = Ce-t/τ + Kqis
Applying the initial condition qo=0 at t=0
gives C= -Kqis and the solution becomes
qo = Kqis(1 – e-t/τ)
This is shown in fig_chp2\fig2.8.pptx
Non-dimensionalizing
t
gives
qo 
 1 e 
Kq is

e-t/τ = 0 makes it an ideal instrument (req. small τ ) 34

The speed of response depends on the value of τ only
and is faster if τ is smaller.
Measurement error is given by
qo Kq is  t /  t /
e m  q i   q is  (1  e )  q ise
K K
Non-dimensional form
em  t /
e (decays with time)
q is

The non-dimensional output and error are shown in

fig_chp2\fig2.9.pptx
35
There are some dynamic characteristics that are useful
in characterizing the speed of response of any
instrument. These are
Rise Time: time required to achieve a response of
90% of the step input.
qo / K  t /
 0.9  1  e
q is
 t /
e  0.1  t  2.303

A response is usually assumed to be complete after

t=5τ s since
 t / 5
1 e  1  e  0.993  99.3% 36
Settling time: time to reach and stay within a stated
plus-and-minus tolerance band value around its final
value. A 5% settling time is equivalent to t=3τ
Knowing now that fast response requires a small value
of τ, application to our thermometer example shows
that τ may be reduced by
1.Reducing ρ, C, and Vb
2.Increasing U and Ab
For the thermometer fluid use small ρC product.
Reducing Vb decreases Ab (unwanted effect).
Reduced Vb , moreover reduces the sensitivity K.
Results in trade-off between speed and sensitivity.
37
Also as U is dependent on the flow situation (free or
forced convection), caution has to be taken with
respect to specification of the instrument.
 Ramp Response
Initially the system is in equilibrium, with q i=qo=0.
qi  qo  0 t0
qi  q is t t0

The differential equation becomes

(D  1)q o  Kq is t
Solution of complementary
 t /
and particular function
q ocf  Ce and q opf  Kq is ( t   )
38
The complete solution will be
 t /
q o  Ce  Kq is ( t   )
Applying the initial condition will give
0  C  Kq is  C  Kq is
This will give the final solution as
 t /
q o  Kq is (e  t  )
Define measurement error em by (qi-qo/K). Then
 t /
e m  q is t  q is (e  t  )
 t /
 q ise  q is
transient error(em,t) steady state error(em,ss) 39
Note that the unsteady state output and error die out
with increasing time.
The non-dimensionalized error is given by
 t /
em  q ise  q is  t /
  1 e
e m ,ss q is
The response and the non-dimensionalized
measurement error are shown in fig_chp2\
fig2.10.pptx
The solution shows that there is a steady state error
given by em,ss and there is a fixed time lag of τ.
40
 Frequency Response
Here the input is harmonic (sine or cosine function)
For a sinusoidal input
qi=Ai sin ωt
A graphical representation of a possible solution is
shown in fig_chp2\fig2.11.pptx
The response shows both the steady and unsteady
parts. Usually the transient part decays with time.
Some of the terms used are shown in the figure.

41
The differential equation will be
(τD + 1)qo = Kqi =KAi sin ωt
The complementary function from previous solutions
is
 t /
q ocf  Ce and
KAi
q opf  sin(t   )
1  ( ) 2

(Refer to handout for details example2-word.docx )

42
The complete solution will be
 t / KA i
q o  q ocf  q opf  Ce  sin(t   )
1  ( ) 2

For steady state ie. large t, the complementary

function decays
The phase shift angle is given by
  tan (  )
1

And the amplitude ratio becomes

qo 1

KAi 1  ( ) 2
43
A much quicker and easier method could be used to
get the same relations if we define the sinusoidal
transfer function (in terms of complex numbers) as
qo bm (i ) m  bm 1 (i ) m 1  ...  b1 (i )  bo
(i ) 
qi an (i ) n  an 1 (i ) n 1  ...  a1 (i )  ao

Use is made of a trigonometric identity in complex

variable theory given by
Aeiθ = A(cosθ + i sinθ)
For θ = ωt,
Aeiωt = A(cos ωt + i sin ωt)
The above identity will allow the representation in a
complex plane as follows. 44
Fig. 2.11b. Phasor representation of sine waves
45
For input qi A = Ai and θ = ωt
Aieiωt = Ai cos ωt + i Ai sin ωt
For output qo A = Ao and θ = ωt + φ
Aoei(ωt+φ) = Ao cos (ωt + φ)+ i Ao sin (ωt + φ)
Differentiations
i (t  ) will give i
Ao e qo Ao e Ao
i t
 (i )   (cos   i sin  )
Ai e qi Ai Ai
qo
(i )
qi
Numerically is the amplitude ratio A o/Ai
while the angle of the complex number is the angle
by which the output leads the input. 46
This is written as
qo Ao
(i )  
qi Ai
If the input leads the output the phase angle is
negative.
qo K qo K
( D)  gives (i ) 
qi D  1 qi  (i )  1

Considering the complex plane with the ordinate (-τω)

and abscissa of 1 the amplitude ratio is K / ( ) 2  1
and the phase angle is tan-1 (-τω).

47
It can also be shown that the time lag is t   / 
The amplitude ratio and phase lag are shown in
fig_chp2\fig2.12.pptx example2.pptx
The steady state solution shows that for an ideal
frequency response, the phase angle must approach
zero. This will also make the amplitude ratio to be
one. This occurs if the product ωτ approaches zero.
This requires
a. For any τ, there will be some frequency input ω
below which measurement is accurate
b.For high ω, the instrument must have a sufficiently
small τ
48
If the input is comprised of two different frequencies
as
qi = sin 2t + 0.3 sin 20t
and if it is going to be sensed by a first order
instrument whose τ = 0.2s , the approach is to solve
the equation with each of the inputs at a time and
then superimpose the solution as the output of the
instrument resulting as
qo/K = 0.93 sin (2t - 21.8o) + 0.072 sin (20t – 76o)
When the input and the output are compared a
considerable measurement error is observed as
shown in the following graphs.
49
m

50
 Impulse Response
The impulse (Fig.2.13 a) function of strength (area)
A is defined by the limiting process
Impulse function of strength A  lim T→0 p(t)

Fig. 2.13 (a) Impulse of strength A

51
Its time duration is infinitesimal. Its peak is infinitely
high and its area is A.
For pulse 0 < t < T, it is the same as a step input
(Fig.2.13b) where the input is qi = A/T = qis and the
differential equation to be solved will be
(τD + 1)qo = Kqis = KA/T
And the complete
KA solution
 t /
qo  (1  e )
T
This solution is valid only up to time T. At this time
we have
KA T /
q o @ t T  (1  e )
T 52
53
For t > T, our differential equation will be
(τD + 1)qo = Kqi = 0 (Fig.2.13c)
Which gives the solution as
 t /
q o  Ce
And imposing the initial condition at t=T which gives
 T /
KA T / T / KA(1  e )
(1  e )  Ce C T /
giving
T Te
T /  t /
KA(1  e )e
qo  T /
Te
54
55
As T is made shorter, the first part (t < T) of the
response becomes of negligible consequence
(Fig.2.13d), so that we can get an expression for q o
by taking the limit T→0
 T /
 KA(1  e )   t / 0
lim T  0  T / e 
 Te  0
In such a case L’Hospital’s rule will be used.
Differentiate the numerator and denominator with
respect to T and take the limit. This will give the
approximate solution as ( fig_chp2\fig2.13e.pptx)
KA  t /
qo  e
 56
57
2.3.3 Second Order Instruments
It follows the equation
2
d qo dq o
a 2 2  a1  a oq o  b oq i
dt dt
The essential parameters can be reduced to three, as
follows:
bo
K  static sensitivity
ao

n  ao
a2  undamped natural frequency, rad/time
58
And
a1
   damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a oa 2
With these definitions the equation becomes
D 2
2D 
 2   1q o  Kqi
 n n 
A good example of a second order instrument is the
force-measuring spring scale shown in fig_chp2\
fig2.14.pptx
Assuming frictional effect proportional to velocity we
will use the following values. 59
Ks = spring constant
B = damping coefficient (constant)
Considering xo = 0 when fi = 0, application of
Newton’s second law yields
2
dx o d xo
fi  B  K s x o  M 2  ( MD  BD  K s ) x o  f i
2

dt dt
Division by Ks will give
M 2 B  fi
 D   1 x o 
 Ks Ks  Ks
Comparing with the general 2nd order equation
M B 1
a2  , a1  , a o  1, bo 
Ks Ks Ks 60
For the spring system this will give
1 Ks 2 B
K ( m / N ), n  ( rad / s), 
Ks M n K s
Bn B
where   
2Ks 2 Ks M

This will allow the definition of critical damping as

Cc  2 K s M and damping ratio
B
 
Cc
61
With step input size qis, the differential equation
becomes
 D 2 2D 
 2   1q o  Kq is
 n n 

Initial condition: at t=0 qo=0 and dqo/dt = 0

The characteristic equation for the complementary
function will depend on the roots of
D  2n D    0
2 2
n

Depending on the value of ζ (ζ>1 overdamped

62
The complete solutions are given as follows:
qo     1 (   2
 2 1 )n t
 e
Kqis 2  1
2

   1 2
(     2 1 )n t
 e  1 (  1)
2  1 2

qo n t
 (1  n t )e  1 (  1)
Kqis
n t
qo e
 sin( 1   n t   )  1
2
  1
Kqis 1  2
63
And

  sin 1
1  2

The above solutions are plotted as functions of the

product ωnt in fig_chp2\fig2.15.pptx.
The following can be observed from the solution
 ωn is a direct indication of speed of response.
Doubling ωn will halve the response time.
 An increase in ζ reduces oscillation, but also slows
the response. Many commercial instruments use
ζ=0.6 to ζ=0.7.

64
Ramp Response
The differential equation for this case is
 D 2 2D 
 2   1q o  Kq is t
 n n  dq
q
With initial conditions o  o
 0 at t  0
dt
The solutions are found to be :
Overdamped
qo 2q is 2  1  2   1 (  
2 2
 2 1 ) n t
 q is t  (1  e
K n 4  2  1
 2  1  2   1
2 2
(    2 1 ) n t
 e )
4   1
2 65
Critically damped

qo 2q is   nt  nt 

 q is t  1   1   e 
K n   2  
Underdamped

qo 2q is
  e n t 
 q is t  1  sin( 1   2
 t  
K n  2 1   2 n

2 1   2
tan  
2  1
2

66
For steady state all the above will give
qo 2q is
 q is t 
K n
Steady state time lag can be shown to be 2ζ/ωn.
Measurement error, em can be determined from
qo qo
em  qi   q is t 
K K
Steady state error will be
qo q o 2q is
ess  q i   q is t  
K K n

fig_chp2\fig2.16.pptx and fig_chp2\fig2.17.pptx 67

respectively show ramp response and non-dimensional
ramp response error.
Frequency Response
For a cosine input, the equation to be solved will be
D 2
2D 
 2   1qo  Kqi sin t
 n n 
The solutions can easily be determined (for example
for the underdamped case) as
 n t
q ocf  e (C1 cos 1   n t  C2 sin 1   n t
2 2

which decays with time 68

And the particular integral function for all the cases
can be determined from the sinusoidal transfer
function

qo K
(i ) 
qi (i / n ) 2  2i / n  1
qo / K 1
(i )  
qi 1  ( /  )   4
n
2 2
 2 / n2
2

2
  tan 1

 / n  n / 

The complete solution will be

69
Trigonometric manipulation will give
qo / K sin(t   )

qi 2
   2

2
  
4    1   
2 
 n    n  

where 2
tan  
n 

 n
ζ=0.6 to 0.7 is the practical choice for instruments.
fig_chp2\fig2.18.pptx shows the amplitude ratio and
phase lag fig_chp2\fig2.19.pptx .
70
Impulse Response
For impulse strength of A solutions are found to be
Overdamped:
qo 1 (     2 1 )n t
 (e
KAn 2  2  1
(     2 1 )n t
e )

Critically damped
qo
 n te n t
KAn
71
Underdamped:
qo 1 n t
 e sin( 1   n t )
2

KAn 1  2

The results are shown graphically in fig_chp2\

fig2.20.pptx

72
2.4 IMPEDANCE MATCHING
The introduction of any measuring instrument into a
measured medium always results in the extraction
of some energy from the medium, thereby
changing the value of the measured quantity from
its undisturbed state thus making perfect
measurements theoretically impossible.
Looking at fig_chp2\fig2.21.pptx the effort to
measure the unknown voltage Eo, is made
theoretically impossible since the circuit is changed
as soon as the voltmeter with its resistance R m is
connected.
73
Since the loading effect is going to change the output
variable, the concept of input impedance will be
used to characterize this effect.
Let qi1 be the input variable of primary interest as far
as the instrument is concerned. Let there be an
associated variable qi2 such that the product qi1 qi2
has the dimensions of power and represents the
instantaneous rate of energy withdrawal from the
device. Then the generalized input impedance Z gi is
defined as
q i1
Z gi 
qi2
74
This gives the power, P, drained by the voltmeter as
2
q i1
P
Z gi
which shows the requirement of large input
impedance to keep the power drain small.
For the voltmeter the input variable q i1=Em. An
associated variable will be qi2=im. This will give
Zgi=Em/im=Rm, the meter resistance.
For a general approach Thévenin’s theorem (without
proof) will be used. If the input is a general load
with input impedance Zl as shown in fig_chp2\
fig2.22.pptx, the open circuit voltage Eo 75
is the one that is measured when the load is not
connected and it is also possible to determine the
impedance ZAB. Thévenin’s theorem states : If the
load Zl is connected as shown in Fig.2. 22b, a
current il will flow. This current will be the same as
the current that flows in the fictitious equivalent
circuit of Fig. 2. 22c. Thus the network contains
only the output impedance ZAB and the single
voltage source Eo.
Applying Thévenin’s theorem to the voltmeter
connection of Fig.2.21a converted to Fig.2.21b
Rm
Em  Eo
R ab  R m 76
If the voltmeter is to indicate the true value Eo, then we
must have Rm >> Rab.
For the generalized input, Zgi, and output impedance,
Zgo, and for electrical and nonelectrical systems
Z gi 1
q i1m  q i1u  q i1u
Z go  Z gi Z go / Z gi  1

Where qi1m=measured value of effort variable

qi1u=undisturbed value of effort variable
High value of Zgi is required.
Similar analysis for an ammeter shows the meter 77
If the device is a power supply to the external load
with Rm
2 2
E 2
1  Rm  E  Rm 2
P 
m
 E o    o

R m R m  R ab  R m  R m  R ab  R m 

For maximizing power (constant Eo, Rab) with respect

to Rm (after differentiating) will require R m=Rab.
Example 2.3 example2-word.docx

78