WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

Group members: Tutor:

Sachin,127 Asst. Prof. Shukra Raj Paudel
Sachita,128 Department of Civil Engineering
Safal,129 IOE, Tribhuvan University
Sagar,130
Shailendra,131 6-24-2021
Sajan,132 1
Scope of this presentation:
• To give clear concept about the assembly and mechanism of rapid
sand filters and discuss pressure filters.
• To shed light upon the various methods of disinfection.
• To explain the use of chlorine as an disinfectant.
• To acquaint ourselves with the knowledge of water softening.
• To discuss alternative treatments for water treatment.

2
 Presentation outline

6.6. Filtration

6.7. Disinfection

6.8. Softening

6.9. Miscellaneous treatments

7.0. References
 6.6. Filtration
• Process of passing water through a filter media.

• Filter media is usually a layer of sand on a bed of gravel.

• Helps in removing fine floc particles, color, dissolved

minerals.

Fig: Filtration process

Source: wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtration
4
6.6.1. Theory of filtration

Sedimentation
Mechanical
And
Straining
Adsorption

Biological Electrolytic
Metabolism Action

5
 6.6.2. Types of filters

Slow sand Rapid Sand Pressure filters

filters filters

Source: https://sswm.info/sswm-university-course/
6
6.6.2.2 Rapid Sand Filter
• Most commonly used filters in large water supply projects.

• Helps in rapid and efficient removal of relatively large suspended

particles.

Pre-treatment Post-treatment
(Sedimentation Rapid sand (Disinfection
and filters usually
Flocculation) with chlorine)

7
 Parts of Rapid sand filter

• Enclosure tank
• Filter media
• Base material
• Under drainage system
• Appurtenances

8
1. Enclosure tank
• Open, watertight and constructed of stone, brick masonry or
concrete.
Depth 2.5 to 3.5 m

Surface Area 10 to 50 m2

Length to width ratio 1.25 to 1.35

Rate of filtration 3000 to 6000 liters per

hour per square meter
No of filter units(N) N=1.22xQ0.5 ; Q is plant
capacity in Ml per day

9
2. Fill
• Sand layer of 60 to 75 cm thickness.
• Effective size varies from 0.45 to 0.70 mm.
• Cu=1.3 to 1.7
Estimation of thickness of Sand Bed

(Qd3h/L) =Bi*29323

where,
Q = filtration rate on m3/hr/m2
d = sand size in mm
h = terminal loss of head in m
L = thickness of sand bed in m
Bi = break through index. Depends on response to coagulation and degree of
penetration in filter influent

10
3. Base material
• Comprised of gravel layer 45 to 60 cm thick.
• Graded with smaller gravels at top and larger at the bottom.

Layers Depth Size

Top layer 15cm 2 to 6 mm
Intermediate layers 15cm 6 to 12 mm
15cm 12 to 20 mm
Bottom layer 15 cm 20 to 50 mm

11
 Fig: section of rapid sand filter
Source: https://sswm.info/sswm-university-course/

4. Under drainage system

The system serves two major purposes:
i. It collects the filtered water during regular operation.
ii. It provides uniform distribution of backwash water while
backwashing.
12
A. Perforated pipe system
• Perforations present in lateral pipes.
• Water is used while backwashing.
• Pipes are usually made of cast iron but also be made of
plastic, asbestos, concrete, etc.

13
14
Design of under drainage system consisting of central pipe and
manifolds:

•Ratio of length to diameter of lateral < 60.

•Spacing of laterals shall be from 15 to 30cm
•The cross-sectional area of manifold must be 1.5 to 2 times sum
of cross-sectional areas of laterals.
•Ratio of total area of perforation to entire filter area may be
about 0.003.
•The perforations diameter may be 5-12 mm and are at 30 degree
angle with vertical axis of pipe.

15
B. Pipe and Strainer System
• Strainers are present in lateral pipes.
• Compressed air is used while backwashing hence saves water.

16
5. Appurtenances

a) Wash water troughs

Q  1.376b1.5 h
b) Rate control device
c) Air compressor
d) Miscellaneous accessories:
- head loss indicator
- flow meter

17
Working Mechanism of rapid sand filters

1. Normal Washing
2. Backwashing
3. Surface Washing

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=rK87TqvEElA
1. Normal washing:
- Valve 1 and 2 open.
- Normal filtering operation

18
2. Backwashing
• Filter is back washed to remove trapped material.
• Usually done when head loss has reached 2.5 to 3m.

Procedure:
-close valve 1 and then 2
-open valve 6
-close valve 6
-open valve 4 and valve 3
-close valve 4
-close valve 3
-open valve 1 slightly and open valve 5
-close valve 5 then open valve 2. Backwashing is done.
19
 Back washing : Key points

• Water used for back washing should be filtered water

• Total wash water should normally not exceed 2 to 3 % of treated
water
• The capacity of storage tank should be sufficient to give normal
was to two filter tanks for 5-6 minutes.
• The rapid sand filters get clogged frequently and need to be back
washed every 1-3 days.
• 10-15 minutes are normally required in back washing.

20
Surface wash

• Employed if top layer of filter isn’t properly washed while

backwashing.
• Two methods are adopted: Fixed type surface wash system and
rotary type surface wash system

Source: steemit.com/science 21
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
Highly effective for turbidity
removal.
High filter rate (3000 to 6000
liters per hour per square meter)
Highly efficient in color removal
Backwashing can be completed
within minutes.
Disadvantages
High capital and operating costs.
Skilled supervision( for flow
control, dosage of
disinfectant ,etc)
High energy input
Backwashing required every 48-
72 hrs.
22
Design Problem
A city has a population of 150,000 with a water supply of 150lpcd.
Determine the number and size of the rapid sand filter required.
Assume necessary data suitably.

Solution:
Population ,P= 150000
Per capita demand of water = 150 lpcd
Water demand in design year, Q= Population × per capita
demand
=150000 × 150
=22500000 liters/day.
Assuming that 3 % of filtered water and 30 minutes of time is
required for backwashing.
23
 2250000 1
Q= ×
(1  0.03) (24 - 0.5)
= 987058.58 liters/hour

Assuming filtering rate, Fr= 5000 liters/hr/m2

Surface Area, A= Q/Fr = 197.41 m2
Then provide 6 units including one stand by unit.
Surface Area of each unit, As= (197.41/5) = 39.48 m2

Assume L is 30% more than B i.e. L = 1.3 × B

As= L × B = 1.3B2 = 39.48 m2
39.48
B= 1.3 = 5.51m

L= 1.3 × B = 1.3 × 5.60= 7.28 m, Say 7.30m

Up till now L and B have been fixed.
24
For depth:
Free board= 0.5 m
Water depth= 1.6 m
Sand depth= 0.6 m
Gravel depth= 0.6 m
Depth for under drain pipe= 0.2 m
Total depth= 3.5 m

Thus we have our design of 6 Rapid Sand Filters which are of

size7.30 m × 5.60 m × 3.50 m each.

25
6.6.2.3 Pressure Filters
• Type of rapid sand filters.

•They are closed cylindrical tanks through which water to be treated is

passed under pressure(0.3 to 0.7N/mm2) by pumping.

•Diameter varies from 1.5m to 3m and length varies from 3.5m to 8m

•Two types of pressure filters namely horizontal and vertical pressure

filters

26
•At the top, inspection windows or manholes are provided for inspection
of process.

Fig: Pressure filters

Source: indiamart.com 27
Pressure filter: Horizontal type

Fig: Horizontal pressure filter

Source: waterpurificationengineering.weebly.com

28
Pressure filter: Vertical type

Fig: Pressure sand filter

Source: Water Supply Engineering

Prof. Dr. Bhagwan Ratna Kansakar 29
• Specification for sand and gravel to be used is same as that of rapid
sand filters.

•Thickness of sand bed as well as gravel layers are also same as in rapid
sand filters.

Operation of Pressure filters

•Similar to rapid sand filters except the coagulated raw water is directly
fed to filters without mixing, flocculation and sedimentation.

•Commonly used coagulant is alum.

30
Backwashing in Pressure Filters
•Backwashing in pressure filters is also carried out in similar manner as
in case of rapid sand filters.

•In case of automatic pressure filters, back washing is done automatically

after a fixed interval of time or when head loss has reached a certain
value.

•Head loss through pressure filters is approximately the same as rapid sand
filters.

31
About Pressure filters

• Rate of filtration is higher as compared to rapid sand filters (6000 to

15000 liters per hour per sq. meter of filter area)

• Less efficient than rapid sand filters.

• Not suitable for public water supply schemes because of high cost,
inefficiency of filtration etc.

• Can be installed for small water supply schemes.

32
6.7 Disinfection
• Water obtained from filters still contains micro-organisms.
• Treatment by which disease producing bacteria present in water are
killed is called disinfection.
• The agent used for disinfection is known as disinfectant.

The methods of disinfection are:

Boiling method

Excess lime treatment

Iodine treatment

Bromine treatment

33
Ozone treatment
Potassium permanganate treatment
Silver treatment
UV ray treatment

Boiling method
•Most effective in complete sterilization of water.

•Around 15 minutes of boiling kills all bacteria's and micro-

organisms.

•However, not suitable on large scale

•due to economical reasons.

•Also doesn’t ensure safety from future

contamination
Source: worldatlas.com

34
Excess lime treatment
•Involves increasing the pH of water to greater than 9.5.

•Removal of bacteria is up to 99.5% or even 100%.

•Excess lime needs to be removed before supplying to consumers.

•Amount of lime to be added in water is 10 to 20 ppm.

35
Iodine Treatment
•Here iodine used as disinfectant.

•Iodine when mixed with water forms hypoiodous acid(HIO) which

disassociates to form hypoiodite ion(IO-).

•Both iodine and acid are good disinfectant.

•At pH value of 7, for 0.5 mg/l for total residual iodine, percentage of I 2 ,
HIO and IO are 52, 48 and 0 respectively.

•Usual dose is 8mg/l and contact time is 5 minutes

36
Bromine Treatment
•Bromine used as disinfectant.

•Bromine when mixed with water forms hypobromous acid(HOBr) which

disassociates to form hypobromite ion(OBr-).

•Also reacts with ammonia to form monobromanine which is also a strong

bactericide and dibromanine

•More expensive but less effective than chlorination.

37
Ozone Treatment
•Ozone(O3) breaks into normal oxygen(O2) and nascent oxygen[O].

•The nascent oxygen is responsible for killing of micro organisms.

•Ozone is unstable and cannot be stored and hence produced at the site.

•Dosage required is 2 to 3 ppm and contact time is about 10 minutes.

38
Potassium Permanganate Treatment
•Oxidizes taste producing organic matters.

•Effective in killing cholera bacteria.

•Generally used in rural areas where source of water is well.

•Usual dosage is 1 to 2 mg/l with contact period of 4 to 6 hours.

Fig: Molecular formula Fig: Color of solution

Source: alamy.com Source: sciencephoto.com/media 39

 Silver Treatment
•Effective in destroying bacterial spores algae present in comparatively
clearer water.

•Limited to small installations as silver is costly.

•Dosage required is 25 to 40 ppb and contact time varies between 10 to 60

minutes.

Fig : Mechanism of silver treatment

Source: highwaterfilters.com/blogs 40
Ultra-Violet Treatment
•Effective in killing both active bacteria as well as spores.

•Treatment with sunlight requires large exposure area and time

•UV rays are generated by machines consisting of mercury vapor lamps

enclosed in quartz globe.

Fig: UV treatment of water

Source: afaauv.com 41
6.7.2 Chlorination
•Method of disinfection in which chlorine is used as disinfectant.

•Kills the present existing bacteria as well as has residual capacity

Fig: Chlorination schematic diagram

Source: uniquewater.com.ph
42
Nascent oxygen theory
Explains that chlorination produces nascent oxygen which kills the
micro organisms.

Enzymatic hypothesis theory

States chlorine first penetrates through cell wall of organisms and reacts
with the enzymes which are necessary to keep the bacteria alive.

Action of chlorine
•Hypochlorous Acid(HOCl) and hypochlorite ions(OCl-) responsible for
disinfection.

•Undisassociated HOCl is about 80-100 times more powerful than

disassociated OCl- ions
43
Properties of Chlorine
• Atomic weight 35.45, M.P. of 10
• Greenish yellow in color, 2.5 times heavier than air
• Under pressure, amber colored oily liquid, 15 times heavier than water
• Liquefaction accomplished by drying, cleaning, and compressing the
chlorine gas to 35kg/c
• Chlorine gas has pungent smell causing irritation, serious disease to
lungs and other tissues.
• Non-combustible but supporter of combustion
• Chemically active and corrosive to metals in presence of moisture

44
Action of chlorine
pH>3
•(Hydrolysis)
(hypochlorous acid)

• HOCl is highly unstable.

pH>8
•(Ionization)
pH<7
(hypochlorite ion)

• HOCl and are disinfecting ions.

• HOCl is 80 times more powerful than .

• C

45
Relative distribution of and ions at different pH
values

•Decrease in percentage of with

increase in pH
•Effectiveness for disinfection
decreases with increase in
temperature

pH>8

pH<7
(hypochlorite ion)

46
Hydrolysis Reaction: (Hydrolysis)

Ionization Constant :
…………. (1)

Table: Ionization Constants

Temperature C) 0 5 10 15 20 25

1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7

From equation(1)

47
The percentage distribution of at various temperatures can be computed
from:

Assuming efficiencies of two components are additive:

Total amount R is the chlorine required to produce a given % of kill of
organisms in a various pH, then
R=
R=
If C is the killing concentration of HOCL,
C= +
where, r is proportional efficiency of ions relative to

48
 Thus, C=
Therefore, R=C

Combined available chlorine:

•The chloramines and chloro-derivatives constitute together to form
combined chlorine

(monochloramine)
• (dichloramine)

(trichloramine)

49
Chlorine demand
-The amount of chlorine consumed in killing pathogenic organisms as well
as oxidation of inorganic and organic materials present in water

Residual Chlorine
-The amount of chlorine remaining in water after chlorine demand has been
fulfilled

Dosage of Chlorine
-Residual chlorine of about 0.2mg/l at the end of 10 minute contact period
gives the optimum dose of chlorine
Chlorine dose = Chlorine demand + Residual chlorine

Contact time
-Time taken to kill the pathogens after application of chlorine

50
Example 6.15
For disinfecting water supply, it is required to treat one million liters of daily
supply with 0.6ppm of chlorine. If bleaching powder containing 35%
ppm(parts
chlorine per million)=
is used as disinfectant, calculate the amount of bleaching powder
required per day.
Solution:

Quantity of water to be disinfected=1 MLD=1*10 6litres/day

Chlorine dose required=0.6ppm=0.6mg/l
Quantity of chlorine required= =0.6 kg/day
Bleaching powder contains 35% of chlorine required.
Therefore, quantity of bleaching powder required= 0.6/0.35 =1.71
kg/day

51
 Example:6.16
Chlorine usage in the treatment of 30000 cubic meter of water per day is 15
kg/day. The residual chlorine after 10 minutes contact is 0.2 mg/l. Calculate
the dosage of chlorine in mg/l and chlorine demand of water.
Solution:
Quantity of water
ppm(parts to be disinfected = 30000 m 3/day = 30*106 liters/day
per million)=
Chlorine dose required = 15 kg/day = 15*10 6mg/day
Dosage of chlorine = (15*106/ 30*106) = 0.5 mg/l
Residual chlorine = 0.2 mg/l
We know, Chlorine dose= Chlorine demand + Residual chlorine
Chlorine demand of water = Chlorine dose – Residual chlorine
= 0.3mg/l

52
6.7.3 Types of Chlorine
1. Bleaching Powder
• HOCL and OCl- are disinfectant: called hypoclorination

pH>8

pH<7

• Low amount of chlorine: (30-35)%

• Requirement: 0.5 to 2.5 kg per million liters of water
• Leads to formation of sludge
• Unstable, goes on losing its strength with time when exposed to
atmosphere
• Not adopted for public water supply , adopted for swimming pools
53
2. Chloramines
• Ammonia is added to added before chlorine is added
• 25 times weaker disinfectant than free chlorine
• Higher contact period required
• Stable and remain in water for long time providing greater
safeguard against future pollution
• Chloramines treated water is supplied after 20 minutes to 1 hours
• When organic compounds present, the amount of chlorine
required is less
• Do not leave bad taste as residue

54
 3. Chlorine Gas or Liquid
Chlorine

Chlorine Liquid
Chlorine Gas
• Direct application • Dissolution of
to water supply chlorine gas in
• Less expensive a small flow of
• Poor diffusion of water
chlorine in water • Solution fed to
• < 100 C choking of point of
pipelines due to application of
crystalline hydrates water supply
of chlorine • Widely used

55
 4. Chlorine Dioxide Gas(
• Highly effective, manufactured at the time of use
• ⇌
• 2% solution having theoretically available chlorine content of 26.1%
• 2.5 times stronger than free chlorine (better oxidant but less reactive)
• Effective used when phenolic products are present and with water (pH>8)
• Remains unaffected by pH 6-10
• Chlorination followed by application of chlorine dioxide
• To preclude the generation of trihalomethanes that could be generated when
the wastewater is treated with chlorine
• Dose required: 0.5 to 1.5 ppm

56
 6.7.4 Forms of chlorination

1. Plain Chlorination
• Applied on clean water which hardly needs treatment
• Applied on water having little organic matter and iron and manganese do
not exceed 0.3 mg/l
• Chlorine: Removal of bacteria , color of water and controlling growth of
algae
• Usual dose of chlorine: 0.5-1 ppm

2. Pre- Chlorination
• Chlorine added to raw water before any treatment or any
sedimentation
57
• Normal dosage :5-10 mg/l
• Residual chlorine: 0.1-0.5 ppm when it enters filter plant
Importance of Pre- Chlorination
• Improve coagulation
• Reduce test and odor
• Controls growth of algae in sedimentation tanks
• Reduces bacterial loads on filters

3. Post- Chlorination
• Chlorine added to raw water after any treatment or filtration process
• Standard Method of Chlorination
• Residual chlorine: 0.10-0.20 ppm when it enters distribution system

58
4. Double or Multiple Chlorination
• Applied in highly turbid water
• Contaminated water
• Both combined (pre+ post) chlorination
• If applied chlorine in multiple stages of treatment, called multiple
chlorination.

5. Break-point Chlorination
Two actions of chlorine:
• Disinfection: Killing the bacteria
• Oxidation of organic matter
• Chlorine dosage: 3-7 ppm

59
Break point : the point on the residual curve at which almost all the
applied chlorine functions as free chlorine.
Break point chlorination : application of chlorine dose higher than at
which break point occurs
Stage II Stage III Stage IV
Initial chlorine Demand Stage I

Chloramines, combined Free chlorine and

Free chlorine breaking

residual chlorine forming residual forming

down chloramines
RESIDUAL CHLORINE

Free residual
B
e

𝐞
in

𝐢 𝐧
L
50

0 𝐋

Combined Residual
45
4

C
Breakpoint
A
0 1 2 3 4
P.p.m. 60
APPLIED CHLORINE
Source: www.rgpvonline.com
Importance of Break point- Chlorination
• Remove taste and odor
• Adequate bactericidal effect
• Leave desired chlorine effect
• complete oxidation of ammonia and other compounds
• Remove manganese

6. Super- Chlorination
• Addition of excess amount of chlorine to a water supply speed
chemical reactions
• Also known as shocking
• Residual chlorine after break point : 0.5-2ppm
• Used in heavily polluted water
61
Effects of super-chlorination
 Corrosion of equipment
 Bleaching of hair and cloth
 Foul-smelling of water
 Generally use either calcium hypochlorite or lithium hypochlorite for
super chlorination

6. Dechlorination
• Process of removing excess chlorine from water
• Avoids chlorinous taste from water before distribution
• Many used chemicals
Sodium Thiosulphate (Na2S 2O3) Sodium Bisulphite (NAHSO3)
Sodium Metabisulphate (Na2S 2O5) Ammonia (NH4OH)
Sodium Sulphite (Na2S O3) Sulphur dioxide(SO2)
62
Sulphur dioxide gas
• inexpensive as a dechlorinator
• with a contact period of not less than 10 to 15 minutes, and a dose of 0.3
to 0.6 p.p.m

• 0.9 part of (by weight) 1 part of

• In actual practice, 1 part of 1.12 part of (25% excess)
• Activated carbon removes chlorine by adsorption
• By filtering super-chlorinated water through beds of granular activated
carbon, excess chlorine oxidizes the carbon to
• Treating water with Mg metal, storage of water exposed to sunlight and
by aeration
63
 6.7.5 Factors affecting efficiency of chlorination
1.Turbidity
• measure of the degree to which the water loses its transparency due to the
presence of suspended particulates
• disinfection efficiency (log10 of the decrease in coliform numbers)
negatively correlated with turbidity
• was influenced by season, chlorine demand of the samples, and the initial
coliform level.
• total organic carbon associated with turbidity
• was shown to interfere with maintenance of a free chlorine residual by
creating a chlorine demand
64
 2. Ammonia Compounds
• Forms combined available chlorine
• Required combined available chlorine to be 25 times the free available
chlorine to achieve same degree of kill

Fig. Kill Rates of E. coli

Source: Water Supply Engineering
By Dr. B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kr. Jain, Arun Kr. 65
Jain
3. pH of water

Increase
Effective-

pH ness of
chlorine

Decrease
66
 4. Temperature

Effective-ness

Decrease
Temperatur

Decrease
of chlorine
e

Fig: Relationship between temperature,

pH and free residual chlorine

67
5. Time of contact

Increase

Increase
Time of Bactericidal
Contact activity of
chlorination

6. Presence of metallic compounds

Utilize large Higher
Iron and Insoluble in
amount of stages of
manganese water
chlorine oxidation

68
 7. Type, condition and concentration of micro-
organisms
• Enteric pathogenic bacteria :less resistant in chlorine than E-coli
• Viruses more resistant than bacteria
• More bacteria clumped, higher dose required
• Higher concentration of micro-organisms require longer time of contact
higher dose

69
Hardness

• The characteristics of water which prevents the formation of

sufficient lather foam with soap.
• Caused due to presence of bicarbonates, sulphates , chlorides
and nitrates of calcium, magnesium and strontium.

6.8 Softening

• The process of removal of hardness from water.

70
Effects of hardness
• It consumes more soap.
• It forms scales in boilers.
• It modifies color in dyeing industry.
• It causes corrosion and incrustation of pipes.
• It makes food tasteless.

Fig: Formation of Fig: Corrosion

scales Source: tapwater.co
Source: viesmann.co.uk

71
Types of hardness
6.8.1Temporary Hardness
6.8.2 Permanent Hardness

• Temporary hardness: Due to the presence of bicarbonates of

calcium and magnesium, strontium.

Removal of temporary hardness

Boiling method:

Ca(HCO3)2+HEAT → CaCO3+ CO2 + H2O

Mg(HCO3)2+HEAT → MgCO3+ CO2 + H2O

72
Lime treatment method

• Hydrated Lime Ca(OH)2 is added to water

• Results in formation of insoluble CaCO3 and MgCO3

Reactions:
Ca(HCO3)2+Ca(OH)2 → 2 CaCO3+ 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2+Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3+ MgCO3 + 2H2O

• Permanent Hardness: Due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides

and nitrates of calcium and magnesium and Strontium.

73
1. Lime Soda Method
• Soda Ash or
• Slow agitation for 30-60 minutes
• Precipitations are marked as

• CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 +H2O

• Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 →2CaCO3 +2H2O
• Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 →MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
• MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg (OH)2 + CaCO3 + H2O
• MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
• CaSO4 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + Na2SO4
• MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2+ Mg(OH)2
• CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + NaCl
74
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Simple and Economical
Less coagulant needed for
coagulation process.
Increase pH of water
Suitable for turbid and acidic
waters.
Mineral content is reduced and
iron and manganese are removed
to some extent.
Disadvantages
Formation of large amount of
sludge
Skilled supervision is needed
Requires re-carbonation of
sedimentation effluent to prevent
incrustation
Does not remove hardness to
zero level
75
 Zeolite Method

• Hydrated aluminosilicates of
sodium,calcium,pottasium.
• Sodium reacts with calcium and
formed sodium salt.
• Ion exchange resin, Zeolite Source https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=a273pRy8bHk
(2SiO2Al2O3Na2O), is used for the
removal of hardness of water.
• Reactions involved:

•2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + Ca(HCO3)2 2SiO2Al2O3CaO + 2NaHCO3

• 2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + CaSO4 2SiO2Al2O3CaO + Na2SO4
•2SiO2Al2O3Na2O+CaCl2 2SiO2Al2O3CaO+2NaCl
•2SiO2Al2O3Na2O+Mg(HCO3)2 2SiO2Al2O3MgO+2NaHCO3
•2SiO2Al2O3Na2O+MgSO4 2SiO2Al2O3MgO+Na2SO4
•2SiO2Al2O3Na2O+MgCl2 2SiO2Al2O3MgO+2NaCl 76
Regeneration of Zeolite
For complete removal of hardness regeneration is necessary.

2SiO2Al2O3CaO+4NaCl 2SiO2Al2O3Na2O+CaCl2
2SiO2Al2O3MgO+4NaCl 2SiO2Al2O3Na2O+MgCl2

Advantages Disadvantages

Automatic process. Unsuitable for highly turbid

Independent of change in
water quality
Free from danger of excess
chemicals.
and acidic water
Unsuitable for water with iron
and magnesium
More chance of growth of
bacteria

77
Deionization Method

Fig:-Deionization process
Source:-Encyclopedia.com

78
•Similar to zeolite process.
• Also known as demineralization process and hydrogen exchanger process.
•Cation exchange process is done on cation exchange region and anion gets
exchanged on anion exchange region.

Cation exchange process:

•On cation exchange region calcium and magnesium are replaced by hydrogen
ions.

H2Z+Ca(HCO3)2 CaZ+2CO2+2H2O
H2Z+CaSO4 CaZ+H2SO4
H2Z+CaCl2 CaZ+2HCl
H2Z+Mg(HCO3)2 MgZ+2CO2+2H2O

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H2Z+MgSO4 MgZ + H2SO4
H2Z+MgCl2 MgZ+2HCl
H2Z+Na(HCO3)2 NaZ+2CO2+2H2O
H2Z+NaSO4 NaZ+H2SO4
H2Z+NaCl NaZ+2HCl

Anion Exchange process:

•Reaction between acid and hydroxide ions takes place:
2DOH+H2SO4 D2SO4+2H2O
DOH + HCl DCL+H2O

Regeneration of hydrogen exchanger

•Regeneration takes place by passing dilute HCL through hydrogen ion
CaZ+H2SO4 H2Z+CaSO4
CaZ+2HCl H2Z+CaCl2 80
MgZ+2HCl H2Z + MgCl2
Na2Z+H2SO4 H2Z + NaSO4
Na2Z+2HCl H2Z + 2NaCl

Regeneration of Deacidite
•Regeneration of Deacidite takes place by passing the acidic solution through
hydroxide ions present in Anion exchange region

D2SO4+Na2CO3+H2O 2DOH+Na2SO4+CO2
2DCl+Na2CO3+H2O 2DOH+2NaCl+CO2

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Miscellaneous Treatment

• Aeration
• Removal of Iron and Manganese
• Removal of colour, odour and taste

Source: https://aosts.com/municipal-
surface-water-treatment-solutions

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6.9.1. Aeration
•In this method raw water is in direct contact of atmospheric air.

Cascade Aerator

ly

Source : encyclopedia.com Source:- water.mecc.edu 83

 Purpose
Removes tastes and odour caused by gases due to organic
decomposition.
Increase dissolved oxygen content in water.
Removes hydrogen sulphides and Carbondioxide and therefore
reduces corrosiveness and raise ph value.
Bacteria are killed.

84
 Type of Aerators
1. Freefall Aerators
• Cascade Aerators
• Slat tray Aerators
• Gravel Bed Aerators
2. Spray Aerator
3. Air Diffusion

85

85
Cascade Aerator
• They are simplest among other free fall aerator.
• Water allowed to fall from 1 to 3 meters,
•50 % to 60 % can be reduced.
•Number of steps 4 to 6.
•Rise 0.15 to 0.3
•Tread 0.3 to 0.6

Figure:- cascade aerator

Source:- encyclopedia.com
86
Slat Tray Aerators

Source:-www.slideshare.net
Similar to Cascade and Cone Aerators,
Consists of 3 to 5 stacked trays
Trays are then filled with fist sized pieces of coke, rock, ceramic balls,
limestone to increase surface areas
•Water spread over the topmost part of the tray .
•The water is collected on the tray in such a way that the water fall from the
edge of one tray hit the center of another tray arranged alternately in the
above figure .
•At the bottom of the instrument there is a small air blower from which air is
blown upward .
•At the top of the instrument ventilator is present from which carbon
dioxide is removed from the water .
•Finally water is collected on the collector pan .

88
Gravel Bed Aerators
• More efficient method to remove CO2 than other methods
• Thickness of gravel bed 1 to 1.5 m
• Water come from inlet percolates through the gravel bed due to the
presence of voids on bed.
• Air is blown through the bottom for maximum diffusion process .

89
Spray Aerator
• Perforated pipe network is installed at bottom of aeration tank and
compressed air is blown through pipe.
• Air bubbles travels through water thus causing aeration.
• Air diffusion basins have a retention period of about 15 minutes
and depths of 3 to 5 metre.

Source:- portfolio.cept.ac.in Source:- pinterest.com 90

Removal of Iron and Manganese
Causes:
Iron and manganese are present in water in suspension or in
hydrated form.
Present in ferrous, ferric, soluble, colloidal or insoluble
form.
Effects:
When present in greater amount greater than 0.3 Ppm
following effects are noted,
 Unpleasant taste and odour.
 Causes staining of plumbing fixtures, clothing and textiles
 Growth of crenoturix in water mains.
 Reddish tinge and brownish tinges due to iron and manganese
respectively.

91
 Removal of Iron
• When present without organic matter, can be removed by aeration,
followed by coagulation, sedimentation and filtration,
• By aeration dissolved iron oxidizes changes to ferric oxide which
is insoluble in water
• When iron is present as ferrous bicarbonate
Fe(HCO3)2 + 2H2O FeO + 2CO2 + 3H2O
4FeO +O2 2Fe2O3
Fe2O3 + 3H2O 2Fe(OH)3

92
Removal of Manganese:
• Dissolved manganese compounds are converted to insoluble
manganese compound and are removed by gravity or pressure filters.
• When bounded to organic matters removal is difficult, bond is then
broken by adding lime and thus raising ph value to more than 9 so
iron and manganese can be predicted.
• When iron and manganese are less in quantity can be removed by
manganese zeolite.
• When in oxidized condition ph 8.2 and 9.6 is required for iron and
manganese for their removal respectively.
93
Source:-www.eculligan.com Source:-www.slideshare.net

94
Source:-www.slideshare.net
6.9.3 Colour, odour and taste removal
• Causes:-
 Organic and vegetative matter
 Industrial wastage
 Dissolved gases
 Dissolved organic matter
 Micro-organism like moulds,actinomycene etc

Source:-www.watercache.com Source:- www.visitvictoria.com

95
Source:- houseshampoo.com Source:- alamy.com

Source:- bbc.com Source:- usgs.gov 96

Removal of colour, taste and odour
 Coagulation followed by filtration,
 Prechloration

 Superchlorination followed

by dechlorination,
 Chloramine treatment

 Ozonation

 Chlorine dioxide

 Removal of iron and

manganese.

Source:-www.denverwater.org

97
Other special methods

• Aeration
• Treatment by activated carbon
• Use of copper sulphate
• Use of potassium permanganate and bleaching clay
• Super chlorination effectively removes tastes, odour
• Aeration of activated chlorine is applicable to removal of tastes
• Chloramines or lime is applicable to removal of phenol taste
• Ozonation improves appearances of water removes traces of colour.

98
Coagulation followed by filtration

Process involves:-
• Feeding the coagulants
• Mixing of coagulants
• Flocculation
• Sedimentation
Commonly used coagulants are
 Aluminium sulphate or alum Al2(so4)3.18H20
 Iron salts FeSo4.7H20, FeCl3 etc.
 Chlorinated copperas FeCl3.Fe2(SO4)3.

99
Prechlorination
• Chlorine added to raw water before any treatment
• Dosage is adjusted about 0.10 to 0.50 ppm
• Reduces bacterial load on filters
• Eliminates tastes and odour
Superchlorination followed by dechlorination
• Application of chlorine beyond breakpoint chlorination
• Residual chlorine content after breakpoint may be 0.5 to 2 ppm.
• Done if there is fluctuation in chlorine demand due to high content of organ
impurities or cysts.
• Dechlorination partial or complete reduction of residual chlorine by chemic
or physical treatment
• Chemicals like sulphur dioxide and sodium bisulphate etc are used.
• Removes excess chlorine to avoid chlorine taste and done before distributio

100
Other special methods

• Aeration
• Treatment by activated carbon
• Use of copper sulphate
• Use of potassium permanganate and bleaching clay
• Super chlorination effectively removes tastes, odour
• Aeration of activated chlorine is applicable to removal of tastes
• Chloramines or lime is applicable to removal of phenol taste
• Ozonation improves appearances of water removes traces of colour.

101
Treatment by activated carbon

• Activated carbon also called activated charcoal used for the

adsorption of gases dissolved in water.
• One gram of activated carbon has surface area of 3000sq m.

Source:- www.acarbons.com 102

Copper sulphate
• Used in the form of solution.
• normally, 0.5 to 0.65 mg of copper sulphate is used to check
growth of algae.
• Excess uses affects the aquatic ecosystem killing fishes and other
creatures.
Potassium permanganate
• Used to reduce the pungent smell of water due to hydrogen sulfide.
Chloramines
• Used for deactivation of bacteria by penetrating the cells of
bacteria and blocking metabolism.
• For ph value 7 or higher monochloramine is used.

103
Ozonation
• Has greater disinfection effectiveness against bacteria and viruses.
• Treatment doesnot involve addition of chemical to water.
• Ozone oxidizes iron, manganese and sulfur in water and removed
by post-filtration.
• Ozonation does not provide germicidal
• High cost and maintenance
• Special mixing techniques are required
• Potential fire hazards and toxicity due to ozone generation.

104
 References
• Prof. Dr. Bhagwan Ratna Kansakar , Water Supply
Engineering(2071) ,ISBN:978-9937-2-9064-7
• BC Punmia, Ashok Jain, Arun Jain, Environmental engineering-1 Water
Supply Engineering,(2005),ISBN:81-7008-092-4
• Effect of turbidity on chlorination efficiency and bacterial persistence in
drinking water: Applied and environmental Microbiology
• Pennyslvania, Department of Environmental Protection

105
 Any questions?

Source https://www.fastweb.com/student-news/articles/ :
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Source: linguaholic.com

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