CHAPTER

ProMOTION
WELD AND BASE METAL Consultant
DISCONTINUITIES

CWERTIFIED WELDING
INSPECTOR
 Discontinuity VS Defect
 An interruption of the typical structure of a material, such as
 a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics.
 A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.

 Defect is
 a flaw or flaws
 by nature or accumulated effect renders a part or product unable to
meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications.
 the term designates rejectability.
 • Inclusions • Porosity
• Misalignment (hi-lo)
• Slag – Uniformly
• Undercut • Tungsten – Scattered
• Underfill
• Spatter – Cluster
• Excessive reinforcement
• Cracks – Linear
• Overlap
• Longitudinal – Piping
• Incomplete Penetration
• Transverse
• Incomplete Fusion
• Crater
• Surface irregularity • Throat
– Overlap • Toe
• Arc Strikes • Root
• Under-bead and Heat-
affected zone
• Hot
• Cold or delayed
Misalignment (hi-lo)
• Definition: Amount a joint is out of
alignment at the root

• Cause: Carelessness. Also due to joining different thicknesses

(transition thickness)

Linear Misalignment
Underfill
• Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces of
the base metal

• Cause: Improper welding techniques, Travel speed too high

(suckback /Concave
Root)
• Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces of the base metal
at the weld root.

• Cause: Root face too large. Energy input too low. Excessive backing gas
pressure.
 Excessive
•Reinforcement
Definition: Weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill a joint.

• Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low

Incomplete Penetration
• Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the required depth into
the joint root
• Cause: Insufficient root opening , Excessive travel speed & Excessive
electrode diameter
Incomplete Penetration
Effect of electrode size on root fusion
Incomplete
Fusion
• Definition: “weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between weld
metal and fusion faces or adjoining weld beads.”
• Cause: Flooding of weld metal ahead of arc , Insufficient heat input &
improper joint design.
Incomplete Root Fusion Incomplete Penetration
Undercut
• Definition: A groove cut at the toe
of the weld and left unfilled.
• Cause: High amperage, electrode angle,
Excessive weaving,
 Overla
•pDefinition: When the face of the weld
extends beyond the weld toe
• Cause: Improper welding technique.
Typically,
electrode angles and travel speed.
Arc
Strike
• Definition: A localized coalescence outside the weld zone
• Cause: Carelessness. accidental striking of an arc on to base material, loss
of welding cable insulation , poor connection of ’current return’ cable
Slag Inclusion
• Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld

• Cause: improper techniques. improper manipulation of the welding

electrode and insufficient cleaning between passes can result in the
presence of slag inclusions.
Tungsten Inclusion
• Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld. (Typically GTAW &
PAW only)

• Cause: amperage too high, electrode tip not snipped, electrode contact with
the weld pool
Spatte
r • Definition: Small particles (droplet) of weld metal expelled from the
welding operation which adhere to the base metal surface.
• Cause: excessive current or voltage, Damp electrodes
Crater pipe
• Definition: A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run, where
the source of heat was removed.

• Cause: Too fast a cooling rate , Improper weld techniques

Porosit
y• Porosity is Cavity-type
discontinuities formed
by gas entrapment
during solidification .
• The porosity can take
several forms:
distributed
surface breaking
pores
wormhole
Porosity
Crack
s Cracks that may occur in welded materials are caused generally by many
factors and may be classified by shape and position.
Classified by Position
Classified by Shape
•HAZ
•Longitudinal
•Centerline
•Transverse
•Crater
•Lamellar Tear
•Fusion zone
•Parent metal
Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.
Welds,
Cracks
Longitudinal (centerline) Longitudinal (HAZ)

Transverse Crack Crater

Longitudinal
Crack
Transverse
Crack
 Toe
Cracks
• Toe cracks occurring in service
are often the result of fatigue
loading of welded components.
 Hot Crack Vs. Cold Crack.
• Hot Crack is intergranular.
• Cold crack may be intergranular or transgranular.
Transgranular Intergranular
 Underbead
 Cracks
Underbead crack is located in HAZ.
 Adjacent to the weld fusion line and running parallel to the
weld interface.

 It takes hours after welding to appear (Delayed cracks).

 So if expected, final inspection should not be performed until

48 to 72 hours after the weld has cooled to ambient
temperature.
 High strength steels (HSLA) ,T&Q steel are susceptible to this
cracking type.

 They result from the presence of hydrogen in the weld zone.

 • Hydrogen could come from filler metal, base metal, surrounding
atmosphere or organic contamination.

Cellulosic electrodes produce

hydrogen as a shielding gas Hydrogen absorbed in
a long, or unstable
arc
Hydrogen produced from
oil, or paint on plate Hydrogen crack

H2 H2

Martensite forms from γ

H2 diffuses to γ in HAZ
 Underbead
Cracks
 Best techniques for the prevention of underbead cracking is:

 To eliminate sources of hydrogen when welding susceptible materials.

 With SMAW low hydrogen electrodes may be used.

 Preheat may help eliminate this cracking problem.

Laminatio
n• “A discontinuity with separation or weakness generally aligned
parallel to the worked surface of a metal”
• If there is slag or blowholes in the part, it will elongate forming
Lamination.
 Delaminatio
n • “Separation of a lamination under stress”
 Presence of laminations open to the groove
face is that they are prime sites for the
accumulation of hydrogen.
 During welding hydrogen could be
dissolved in the molten metal and provide a
necessary element for the occurrence of
cracking.
 Seams
• Straight Line longitudinal crevices or openings that may appear on surface.
• They differ from laminations in that they are open to the rolled surface

of the metal instead of the edge.

Cluster Seams
 Lap
•
s in the mill passes that causes fins or
Laps are the result of overfilling
projections .