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N2 Industrial Electronics
N2 Industrial Electronics
N2 Industrial Electronics
N2
Module 1: Direct current principles
ATOMIC THEORY
An atom could be defined as the smallest part of an element that retains the
property of the element. The three main parts are made up of:
• Protons (positively charged);
• Neutrons (no electrical charge); and
• Tiny electrons (negatively charged).
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Module 1: Direct current principles (continued)
• Series: • Parallel:
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Module 2: Alternating current principles
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Module 2: Alternating current principles (continued)
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Module 2: Alternating current principles (continued)
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Module 3: Measuring instruments: Analogue and
digital meters
THE MOVING-COIL METER
The basic moving-coil meter in can be used for measuring DC voltages and
DC currents as well as resistance.
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Module 3: Measuring instruments: Analogue and digital meters
(continued)
DAMPING MECHANISMS
Galvanometer damping is provided by two mechanisms:
• Mechanical which is caused mainly by the motion of the coil through the
air surrounding it; and
• Electromagnetic which is caused by induced effects in the moving coil as it
rotates in the magnetic field, provided that the coil forms part of a closed
electrical circuit.
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Module 3: Measuring instruments: Analogue and digital meters
(continued)
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Module 3: Measuring instruments: Analogue and digital meters
(continued)
METER USES
The meter can be used as:
• An Ammeter, which must be connected in series with the load;
• A Voltmeter, which must be connected in parallel with the load; and
• An Ohmmeter, which must also be connected in parallel with the load.
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Module 3: Measuring instruments: Analogue and digital meters
(continued)
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Module 4: Synchro and servo systems
INTRODUCTION
A simple Synchro system can be thought of as the electrical equivalent of a
long metal shaft that transmits motion from one point to another. For
example, when one end of the shaft is being rotated mechanically, the other
end turns in exactly the same manner.
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Module 4: Synchro and servo systems (continued)
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Module 4: Synchro and servo systems (continued)
APPLICATIONS
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Module 4: Synchro and servo systems (continued)
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Lenz’s Law can be defined as a magnetic field that cuts through a coil to
induce a voltage in that coil, which causes a current to flow. This induced
current will in turn generate its own magnetic field, which will oppose the
original inducing magnetic field.
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Module 4: Synchro and servo systems (continued)
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Module 4: Synchro and servo systems (continued)
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Module 5: Transducer devices
INTRODUCTION
A transducer can be defined as a device that converts one form of energy
into another form of energy.
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Module 5: Transducer devices (continued)
THERMISTORS
Thermistors are non-linear resistors that are extremely sensitive to
temperature changes, exhibiting either PTC or NTC. Thermistors applications
include:
• Measurement and control of temperature (furnaces and kilns);
• Temperature compensation;
• Liquid level indicators; and
• Time delay devices.
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Module 5: Transducer devices (continued)
THERMOCOUPLES
Thermocouples are also temperature sensitive transducer devices. These
devices are extremely accurate and are employed in industries such as the
aircraft industry to monitor the exhaust gas temperature of a turbine engine.
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Module 5: Transducer devices (continued)
BIMETAL STRIPS
The bimetal strip is probably the most common and widely used device to
detect thermal change. Bimetal applications include features in:
• The motor vehicle industry;
• Domestic appliances, such as the refrigerator;
• Hot-water tank temperature control;
• Electrical power control; and
• Gas-operated appliances.
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Module 5: Transducer devices (continued)
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Module 6: The decibel
INTRODUCTION
The term (or unit) decibel, abbreviated as dB, is named after Alexander
Graham Bell who first applied the logarithmic principle to measurements he
performed during experiments of deafness. The decibel can be
mathematically defined as:
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Module 6: The decibel (continued)
TRANSMISSION LINES
Any wire or conductor can be considered a transmission line. When
considering microwave frequencies, coaxial cable and parallel wires
generate rather great losses and we have to use another form of
transmission line such as waveguides and fibre optics.
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Module 6: The decibel (continued)
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
The characteristic impedance is the ratio of the voltage to the current of a
wave travelling in either direction on a transmission line (implying that the
input and output impedances is common to the line).
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Module 6: The decibel (continued)
CURRENT RATIOS
By definition, we can see that the gain (or loss) of a network or transmission
line is not merely expressed in terms of power (watts), but it can also be
expressed in terms of current or voltage.
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Module 6: The decibel (continued)
CONCLUSION
The gain or loss of a network can be expressed as being a ratio between the
output and input of the system in terms its power (watts) voltage or current
expressed in decibel (dB). Although the decibel is not an absolute unit, it
indicates the relationship between two powers.
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes
INTRODUCTION
All materials exhibit certain resistive characteristics when analysed at room
temperature. Materials can be divided electrically into three main groups:
• Conductors;
• Insulators; and
• Semi-conductors.
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
ENERGY LEVELS
The resistance of a semi-conductor material is greater than that of a
conductor, but considerably less than that of an insulator. The energy-band
diagram expresses the relationship between conductors, semi-conductors,
and insulators:
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
DOPING
The method of adding impurities to pure Si or Ge to make it a better
conductor of electron flow is called doping.
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
THE PN-JUNCTION
A PN-junction is formed when a P-type material and an N-type material is
joined together. This joining together is not an electrical junction but is a
junction which is achieved through a manufacturing process in which
electrons and holes are uniformly distributed in the two types of material
provided they have been doped to the same extent.
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
BIASING
There is forward biasing: And reverse biasing:
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
DIODE APPLICATIONS
Junction diodes are extensively used for rectification purposes in a wide
variety of industries. Other than their ability to supply half-wave or full-wave
rectification of an AC quantity, diodes are also used as protection devices in
inductive circuits and other types of loads.
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
ZENER DIODE
The zener diode is constructed so that it is mainly used in the reverse bias
mode. When operated in the forward bias mode, however, its forward
characteristics are similar to that of an ordinary junction diode.
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
PHOTO DIODE
A photo diode is a semi-conductor PN-junction device whose area of
operation is restricted to the reverse bias region.
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Module 7: Semi-conductor diodes (continued)
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Module 8: Semi-conductor transistors
TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION
The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of two PN-
junctions arranged as:
• Two P-type and one N-type layer (called a PNP transistor); or
• Two N-type and one P-type layer (called a NPN transistor).
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Module 8: Semi-conductor transistors (continued)
TRANSISTOR BIASING
The biasing potentials, and for both PNP- and NPN-type transistors can be
seen:
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Module 8: Semi-conductor transistors (continued)
TRANSISTOR OPERATION
the emitter supplies the majority carriers, which is in turn are being collected
by the collector with the presence of a small base current.
Applying Kirchoff ’s current law we get:
which relates to the emitter current = the sum of the collector and base
currents.
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Module 8: Semi-conductor transistors (continued)
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Module 8: Semi-conductor transistors (continued)
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Module 8: Semi-conductor transistors (continued)
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