P3: Properties of waves,

including light and sound

Physical Science
 P3.1 General wave properties
1. Demonstrate understanding that waves transfer energy without
transferring matter
2. Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes,
springs and by experiments using water waves
3. Use the term wavefront
4. State the meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude
5. Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable
examples
6. Describe how waves can undergo:
– reflection at a plane surface
– refraction due to a change of speed
7. Describe the use of water waves to demonstrate reflection and refraction
8. Recall and use the equation v = f λ
9. Understand that refraction is caused by a change in speed as a wave moves
from one medium to another
10. Describe how waves can undergo diffraction through a narrow gap
11. Describe the use of water waves to demonstrate diffraction
P3.1.1: Demonstrate understanding that waves transfer energy without transferring matter

● Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter:

● When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it: The
points on the wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
P3.1.2: Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes, springs and by experiments using water
waves

● Wave motion is the transfer of energy from one point to another.

● We can demonstrate this by hanging an object on a stretched string and then sending
a pulse down the string (by moving it up and down quickly like a wave).
● When the pulse meets the suspended object, the object bobs up and down for a
moment
P3.1.3: Use the term wavefront

● Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used
to represent a single wave
P3.1.4: State the meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude

● wavelength of a wave
○ distance from a point on one wave to the
same point on the next wave.
○ Usually this is measured from the top of
one wave to the top of the next wave
○ Wavelength is usually measured in metres
(a distance)

● amplitude of a wave
○ Height
○ measured from the middle of the wave to
its top (or from the middle to its bottom)
P3.1.4 continued

● frequency of a wave
○ number of waves passing a point (or being created or received)
every second
○ it is helpful to think of it as being the waves per second
○ The units of frequency are hertz (Hz)
● Speed of a wave
○ the speed is the distance traveled by a given point on the wave
(such as a crest) in a given interval of time.
○ In equation form, If the crest of an ocean wave moves a distance of
20 meters in 10 seconds, then the speed of the ocean wave is 2.0
m/s.
○ the speed of a wave (v) is related to the frequency (f) and
wavelength (λ)
P3.1.5: Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples

Transverse Waves
● the points along the wave vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction in which the wave is
moving (the direction of energy transfer)
● E.g. light waves
P3.1.5: continued

Longitudinal wave
● the points along the wave vibrate in the same direction that the wave is moving in
● E.g. sound
P3.1.6: Describe how waves can undergo:– reflection at a plane surface– refraction due to a change of speed
– reflection at a plane surface
– refraction due

Reflection
● When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:
● When they hit a flat surface, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection
P3.1.6: continued

Refraction
● When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change
● This effect is called refraction, and it can have two other effects:
○ The wavelength of the waves can increase or decrease
○ The waves can change direction
● If the waves slow down
○ the waves will bunch together, causing the wavelength to decrease.
○ The waves will also start to travel closer to the normal
● If the waves speed up
○ they will spread out, causing the wavelength to increase.
○ The waves will also turn slightly away from the normal
P3.1.7:

● Properties of waves can be studied using a ripple tank like the ones in the following
videos.
● Ripples (tiny waves) are sent across the surface of water. Obstacles are put in their
path to see what effect are produced
P3.1.7: continued

Reflection

A vertical surface is put in the path of the waves. The waves are reflected from the surface
at the same angle as they strike it.

Side View
Top View
P3.1.7: Refraction
P3.1.7: Continued
Explaining refraction- The waves keep oscillating (up and down)
at the same frequency (rate), so when they slow, the wave fronts
close up on each other other.

From the wave equation- As the frequency is unchanged, a

decrease in speed must cause a decrease in wavelength.

From the diagram, you can see that is the wave fronts
close up on each other, their direction of travel must
change, unless they are travelling at right-angles to
the boundary.
P3.1.8: Recall and use the equation v = f λ

● The speed of a wave (v) is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) by the
equation:
P3.1.8: continued

Sound waves with a frequency of 2.1 kHz travel through a substance at a speed of
650 m/s. Calculate the wavelength of the waves

Wavelength = speed/ frequency

= 650 /2100

=0.31 m
P3.1.9: Understand that refraction is caused by a change in speed as a wave moves from one medium to another

● A useful analogy is to consider a car traveling from

the road (a fast medium) to mud (a slow medium).
● As the car travels, one tire goes forward faster than
the other, which causes the entire car to turn.
● This is demonstrated visually to the right
○ Note that this analogy works for both the cases where the car
goes from a fast medium to a slow one or from a slow
medium to a fast one.
P3.1.10: Describe how waves can undergo diffraction through a narrow gap

● When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
● This effect is called diffraction
P3.1.10: continued

Factors affecting diffraction

Size of wavelength compared to gap size

● Diffraction only generally happens when the gap is smaller than the wavelength of
the wave
● As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced
○ in the case that the gap is very much larger than the wavelength, the waves no longer spread out at all
P3.1.11: Describe the use of water waves to demonstrate diffraction
Question
1. What will happen to waves
striking the harbour wall at
A?
2. What will happen to the
waves slowed by the
submerged sandbank at B?
3. What will happen to waves
passing through the
harbour entrance at C?
4. If the harbour entrance
were wider, what
difference would this
make?
Answers
1. What will happen to waves
striking the harbour wall at
A? Reflect
2. What will happen to the
waves slowed by the
submerged sandbank at B?
Refract (bend)
3. What will happen to waves
passing through the harbour
entrance at C? Diffract
(spread out)
4. If the harbour entrance were
wider, what difference would
this make? Less diffraction
(less spreading out)
How do we know that waves behave like this?

Sound, light and radio signals all undergo reflection, refractions and diffraction. This suggest
that they travel as waves. For example:

a) Light reflects from mirrors; sound reflects from hard surfaces.

b) Light bends when it passes from air into glass or water.
c) Sound bends around obstacles such as walls and buildings, which is why you can hear
around corners.
d) Light spreads when it pass through tiny holes and slits. This suggests that light waves
must have much shorter wavelengths than sound.
e) Some radio signals can bend around very large obstacles such as hills. This suggests
that radio waves must have long wavelengths.
 P3.2 Light
P3.2.1 Reflection of light

1. Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror and give its
characteristics
2. Recall and use the law angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r
recognising these angles are measured to the normal
3. Give the meaning of critical angle
4. Describe internal and total internal reflection
5. Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for reflection
by plane mirrors
6. Recall that the image in a plane mirror is virtual
7. Describe and explain the action of optical fibres particularly in medicine
and communications technology
Real vs Virtual

Real image
● is formed when rays converge,
● is formed on a screen (or some other detector, like your eyes) when all of the rays
from a single point on an object strike a single point on a screen.

virtual image
● occurs where rays only appear to diverge
P3.2.1.1: Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror and give its characteristics

How do we see objects in the mirror? It is due to reflection (of light). Light rays will strike
the mirror and reflect off it into our eyes. The optical image formed will be:
● the same size as the object.
● Upright
● virtual
● The image will be behind the plane of the mirror and the object will be in front;
○ the distance between the image and mirror will be equal to the distance between the object and mirror.
P3.2.1.2: Recall and use the law angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r recognising these angles are measured to the
normal

Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – a family of transverse waves

As with all wave, when light reflects:

● Angle of incidence, i = angle of reflection, r
● These angles are measured to the normal
● The n0rmal is the invisible line running
perpendicular to the mirror
P3.2.1.3: Give the meaning of critical angle

● The critical angle is the angle of incidence which produces an angle of refraction of
900 (refracted ray is along the boundary of the surface).
● When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, total internal reflection
occurs (all light is reflected at the boundary).
● This effect only occurs at a boundary from a high refractive index material to a low
refractive index material.
P3.2.1.4: Describe internal and total internal reflection

● When light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, most of the
light is refracted, but a small amount of it can be internally reflected
● However, if the angle of the light is great enough then instead of being refracted,
ALL of the light is reflected
● This is called Total Internal reflection and happens when the angle of the incident ray
is greater than the critical angle for that material
● Two conditions are necessary for total internal reflection to occur:
○ The light must be going from a more dense medium towards a less dense one
○ The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
P3.2.1.5: Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for
reflection by plane mirrors

Method 1:

1. From the object, O, draw a ray which strikes the mirror at an angle of incidence of 35° (or value of
your own choosing close to this).
2. Construct a normal (a line at right-angles to the mirror’s surface) at the point where the ray strikes the
mirror.
3. Draw the reflected ray from this point, so that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for a second ray with an angle of incidence of 55° (or value of your own choosing
close to this).
5. Extend the two reflected ray backwards until they intersect (meet).
6. The point of intersection, I, is the image position
P3.2.1.5: continued

Method 2:

This method uses the fact that the position of the image behind the mirror matches that of
the object in front.

1. From the object, O, draw a line which passes through the mirror’s surface at right
angles. Extend this line well beyond the mirror.
2. Measure the distance from the object to the mirror.
3. At an equal distance behind the mirror, mark a point on the extended line. This point,
I, is the image position.
P3.2.1.6: Recall that the image in a plane mirror is virtual

Real image
● is formed when rays converge,
● is formed on a screen (or some other detector, like your eyes) when all of the rays
from a single point on an object strike a single point on a screen.

virtual image
● occurs where rays only appear to diverge
P3.2.1.7: Describe and explain the action of optical fibres particularly in medicine and communications technology

Total internal reflection is also used to reflect light along optical fibres, allowing the high-
speed transmission of data on the internet
continued

Additionally, optical fibres can be used in medicine in order to see within the human body
P3.2.2 Refraction of light

1. Interpret and describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light

2. Recall and use the definition of refractive index n in terms of speed
3. Use the terminology for the angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r and
describe the passage of light through parallel-sided transparent material
4. Recall and use the equation for refractive index
P3.2.2.1: Interpret and describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around
the block using a pencil
2. Take a ray box and carefully aim the box so that a single ray of light
passes through the block
3. Using a pencil, mark some points along the path of the ray:
a. Before it reaches the block;
b. Where it hits the block;
c. Where it leaves the block;
d. After it has left the block
4. Now remove the block from the paper and, using a ruler and pencil,
draw straight lines connecting points: a and b; b and c; c and d. The
resulting line will show the path of the ray
5. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for
a ray striking the block at a different angle
P3.2.2.2: Recall and use the definition of refractive index n in terms of speed

● The speed of light is determined by the medium (material) through which the light is
travelling. Light travels faster in a vacuum than it does in any other medium.
● Light changes speed as it passes from one medium to another. This is called
refraction.
● The frequency of light does not change as it refracts.
● The refractive index of a material is a measure of the change in the speed of light as
it passes from a vacuum (or air as an approximation) into the material
P3.2.2.3: Use the terminology for the angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r and describe the passage of light through
parallel-sided transparent material

● When light enters a glass block, it slows down, causing it to change direction
● When it leaves the block it speeds up again, changing direction once more
P3.2.2.3: continued

● When light travels from a less dense material to a more dense material (e.g. from
air to glass), the light ray bends towards the normal.
○ That is, the angle of incidence > angle of refraction.
● When light travels from a more dense material to a less dense material (e.g. from
glass to water), the light ray bends away from the normal.
○ That is, the angle of refraction > angle of incidence.
P3.2.2.4: Recall and use the equation for refractive index

Snell's Law
● When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it
slows down and bends towards the normal
● Snell’s law gives the relationship between the angle of
incidence i, and the angle of refraction r:

Where n= refractive index

P3.2.3 Thin converging lens

1. Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light

2. Use the terms principal focus and focal length
3. Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a real image by a single lens
4. Show understanding of the terms real image and virtual image
5. Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a virtual image by a
single converging lens
6. Describe the nature of an image using the terms enlarged/same
size/diminished and upright/inverted
7. Use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass
P3.2.3.1: Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light

● A lens is a transparent object that causes the light that passes through it
to refract.
● A converging lens that is curved on both sides (there are two types of
converging lens- concave and convex.)
● It causes the light rays that are travelling parallel to its principal axis to
refract and cross the principal axis at a fixed point called the focal point.

A thin converging lens causes light

to converge (come together)
P3.2.3.2: Use the terms principal focus and focal length

● When parallel rays of light

(travelling parallel to the principal
axis) pass through a lens, they are
brought to a focus at a point known
as the principal focus
● The distance of the principal focus
from the lens is called the focal
length, and depends on how curved
the lens is
P3.2.3.3: Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a real image by a single lens

● Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them

● The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:
P3.2.3.3:continued

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top

of the object through the centre of the
lens. This ray will continue to travel in a
straight line (line 1)
2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the
object, travelling parallel to the axis to
the lens. When this ray emerges from the
lens it will travel directly towards the
principal focus (line 2)
3. The image is found at the point where the
above two rays meet
P3.2.3.4: Show understanding of the terms real image and virtual image

● Discussed earlier
● Real image
○ formed by the convergence of rays of light
○ can be projected onto a screen
● Virtual
○ light ‘appears’ to have converged when traced backwards but don’t actually meet
P3.2.3.5: Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a virtual image by a single converging lens

From the top of the object, you draw three rays

From the top of the object,

1. A parallel line to the lens then pass through the focal point on the other side
2. pass a ray line through the centre of the convex lens.
3. Pass a ray through the focal point until it gets to the lens, then it goes parallel

Where the lines converge is where the top of the image will appear

Depending on where the object is in relation to the focal point, you might only be able to
draw lines 1 and 2
P3.2.3.5: Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a virtual image by a single converging lens

Beyond 2F

When the object is beyond 2F, the

image is:
● Real
● Inverted
● diminished (smaller than the
object).
Cameras and eyes
● Convex lenses are used in cameras, which work in a very similar manner to a human eye
● An object at more than two principal focal lengths away from the convex lens will
produce an image smaller and inverted.
● Retinas, film, and imaging sensor chips all receive an inverted (upside-down) version of
the image.
● Corrections to images:
○ your brain steps in to help your eyes. It knows the world is supposed to be right side up. So it flips the image
over again.
○ Digital cameras are programmed to make the correction on their own.
○ Non-digital cameras contain a prism or mirror that flips the image so it appears right side up.
○ Film is transparent so you can view the images on it the right way around.
At 2F

When the object is at 2F, the image

is:
● Real
● Inverted
● Same size as the original object
continued

Between 2F and F

When the object is between 2F and F,

the image is:
● Real
● Inverted
● magnified (larger than the
object).
Projectors
● Projectors contain convex lenses.
● For an object placed between one and two focal lengths from the lens, the image is:
○ inverted (upside down)
○ magnified (larger than the object)
○ real (can be produced on a screen)
● In a film or data projector, this image is formed on a screen.
● Film must be loaded into the projector upside down so the projected image is the
right way up.
continued

Between F and the lens centre

When the object is between F and the lens

centre, the image is:
● Virtual
● Upright
● magnified (larger than the object).
P3.2.3.6: Describe the nature of an image using the terms enlarged/same size/diminished and upright/inverted

See previous slides

P3.2.3.7: Use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass

● A magnifying glass is a convex lens used to make an object appear much larger than
it actually is.
● This works when the object is placed at a distance less than the focal length from
the lens. The image is:
○ upright (the right way up)
○ magnified (larger than the object)
○ virtual (cannot be produced on a screen)
● Only the person using the magnifying glass can see the image.
● The image cannot be projected onto a screen because it is a virtual image.
Converging lens worksheet

worksheet
 P3.2.4 Electromagnetic spectrum

1. Describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of frequency, from
radio waves to gamma radiation (γ)
2. State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum
3. State that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 10 8 m / s and is
approximately the same in air
4. Describe typical properties and uses of radiations in all the different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum including:
a. radio and television communications (radio waves)
b. satellite television and telephones (microwaves)
c. electrical appliances, remote controllers for televisions and intruder alarms (infra-
red)
d. medicine and security (X-rays)
3.2.4.1: Describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of frequency, from radio waves to gamma
radiation (γ)

● Visible light, however, is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: the
electromagnetic spectrum
● The different parts of the spectrum have different names (and some different
properties)
● These parts go from the longest wavelength (and lowest frequency) to the shortest
wavelength (and highest frequency)
3.2.4.2: State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum

● All electromagnetic waves share several properties:

○ They are all transverse
○ They can all travel through a vacuum
○ They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
3.2.4.3: State that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 10 8 m / s and is approximately the same in air

● The speed of light, in a vacuum, is approximately 3 x 10 8 m/s

● The speed of light in air is approximately the same
3.2.4.4: Describe typical properties and uses of radiations in all the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
including

Summary:
3.2.4.4: continued
Radio waves and microwaves
● These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses. Their main uses concern wireless communication – in fact
many things that people often assume use radio waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellite
communications…)
● At very high intensity, microwaves can also be used to heat things: This is what happens in a microwave oven

Infrared
● Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal imaging cameras). These can be used
in industry, in research and also in medicine
● Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the spectrum and this can be used to allow them
to see in the dark: Infrared lights are used to illuminate an area without being seen, which is then detected using the camera
● Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an infrared receiver on a device such as a TV
● Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so most fibre optic communication systems use
infrared
3.2.4.4: continued
Ultraviolet
● Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a suntan, which is your body’s way of protecting itself against the ultraviolet
● When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as visible light (making them glow). This
process is known as fluorescence
● Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things using special ink – in fact most bank notes have invisible fluorescent
markings on them
● Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light

X-rays
● The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine. X-rays are able to pass through most body tissues, but are absorbed by the
denser parts of the body, such as bones. When exposed to x-rays, bones create a shadow which can be seen using a special x-
ray detector or using photographic film

Gamma rays
● Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
● If the gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very effective at killing it
● Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria
 P3.3 Sound

1. Describe how vibrating objects produce sound waves, and how sound waves can cause
objects to vibrate, including the eardrum
2. Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves
3. Describe the transmission of sound waves in air in terms of compressions and
rarefactions
4. State that the approximate range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20
Hz to 20 000 Hz
5. Show an understanding that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves
P3.3.1: Describe how vibrating objects produce sound waves, and how sound waves can cause objects to vibrate, including
the eardrum

● The source of a sound vibrates, bumping into nearby air molecules which in turn
bump into their neighbours, and so forth.
● This results in a wave of vibrations travelling through the air to the eardrum, which in
turn also vibrates.
● What the sound wave will sound like when it reaches the ear depends on a number of
things such as the medium it travels through and the strength of the initial vibration.
P3.3.2: Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves

● Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

● They cause particles to vibrate parallel to the direction of wave travel.
P3.3.2: continued

● The Loudness of a sound is related to

the wave’s amplitude
○ (Greater amplitude = louder sound)
● The Pitch of a sound is related to the
frequency
○ (Greater frequency = higher pitch)
● As with all waves, sound waves can be
reflected
○ The reflection of a sound wave is called an
echo
P3.3.3: Describe the transmission of sound waves in air in terms of compressions and rarefactions

● Longitudinal waves consist of compression and rarefactions:

● A compression is a place where the molecules are bunched together
● A rarefaction is a place where the molecules are spread out
P3.3.4: State that the approximate range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz

● The cochlea is only stimulated by a limited range of frequencies.

● Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz in frequency (although
this range decreases with age)
● Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves with a frequency greater than 20 000
Hz
P3.3.5: Show an understanding that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves

● Sound needs a material medium for their propagation like solid, liquid or gas to
travel because the molecules of solid, liquid and gases carry sound waves from one
point to another.
● Sound cannot progress through the vacuum because the vacuum has no molecules
which can vibrate and carry the sound waves