Year 9 Physical Science

Term 1-2022
What is Physical Science

● An indepth look at Chemistry and Physics

● A chance to deepen your understanding of the topics taught in normal
Science
● An introduction to some of the concepts taught in HSC Chemistry and
Physics
● An opportunity to develop and refine your experimental and design
thinking skills
● A lot of fun!

Week 1
 Complete Chemistry
What textbooks will we use? for Cambridge IGCSE

Complete Physics
for Cambridge
IGCSE
Week 1
Physical Science Syllabus

SYLLABUS

● This content will be covered over this year AND next year
● The syllabus is split into two sections: Chemistry and Physics
● Letters and numbers are used for each section of the syllabus
○ C= Chemistry
○ P= Physics

Week 1
Term 1

C1 The particulate nature of matter

C2 Experimental techniques C2.1 Measurement

C2.2 Criteria of purity
C2.3 Methods of purification

C3 Atoms, elements and compounds C3.1 Physical and chemical changes

C3.2 Elements, compounds and mixtures
C3.3 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
C3.4 Ions and ionic bonds
C3.5 Molecules and covalent bonds
C3.6 Macromolecules

C4 Stoichiometry

P3 Properties of waves, including light and sound P3.1 General wave properties
P3.2 Light
P3.3 Sound
Week 1
Getting to know you

1. Please navigate and find our Canvas page (physical science,

not normal science)
2. Navigate to today's date and click the link to the google form

Week 1
 C1: The particulate nature of matter

Week 1
 1. State the distinguishing properties of
solids, liquids and gases
2. Describe the structure of solids, liquids
and gases in terms of particle

C1.1: separation, arrangement and types of

motion
3. Explain changes of state in terms of
the kinetic particle theory and the
energy changes involved
The particulate nature of matter
4. Describe and explain diffusion in
terms of the movement of particles
(atoms, molecules or ions)
5. Describe and explain dependence of
rate of diffusion on molecular mass
Particles

Everything around us, and in us, is made up of

tiny things called particles

Week 1
What actually are particles?

Particles is a general term used to describe the basic building

blocks of matter.

Thinking back to what you learnt last year, what types of particles
could we find?

Textbook: Page 2-3

Week 1
Brownian Motion

Week 1
Brownian Motion

random movement of particles in a fluid

due to their collisions with other atoms
or molecules

Examples:

● Pollen grains in water

● Dust in the air
● Smoke in the air
Week 1
States of Matter pre-test

Quizizz.com: Particle Theory

Week 1
Brainstorm

● Work in groups of 4
● Brainstorm on the A3 paper in front of
you what you remember about the
different states of matter
● This could be in the form of pictures,
words, definitions etc

THEN

● Share with the class

Week 2
Recap: States of matter
SOLID LIQUID GAS

● Have a fixed shape ● Fixed volume but not ● No fixed volume or shape
and volume shape ● Take the shape of
● Can’t be compressed ● Take the shape of container
● Particles close container ● Can be compressed
together in a regular ● Can’t be compressed ● Particles widely spaced in
pattern ● Particles close together random order
● Particles vibrate but disordered ● Particles moving very fast
around a fixed point ● Particles move freely
Recap: Changing states of matter
Changes of State
After the experiment

1. Draw your graph

2. Look at the diagram on page 38 of your textbook and label your graph
3. Answer the questions on your experiment booklet
4. Copy down the phase change graph into your book
C1.4: Describe and explain diffusion in terms of the movement of particles (atoms,
molecules or ions)
Diffusion

the process in which particles mix by colliding randomly with each other, and bouncing
off in all directions

● particles spread from where they are more concentrated to where they are less
concentrated, until they are evenly mixed.
Diffusion in the lab
Diffusion
C1.5 Describe and explain dependence of rate of diffusion on
molecular mass
● Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles move much
quicker than liquid particles

Gases diffuse at different rates depending on:

1. The mass of the particles

a. The lower the mass of its particles, the faster a gas will diffuse.
b. When particles collide and bounce away, the lighter particles will bounce further.
2. The temperature
a. The higher the temperature, the faster a gas will diffuse.
b. When a gas is heated, its particles take in heat energy, and move faster.
c. They collide with more energy, and bounce further away so the gas diffuses faster.
Gas pressure

Gas pressure is caused by gas

particles colliding with a
surface.

More collisions = higher gas

pressure
How to increase gas pressure?

1. Increase the number of gas molecules

2. Increase the temperature
3. Compress the gas into a smaller space

Can you think of examples where we may do this?

Altitude, pressure and boiling

● Gravity pulls air

particles down.

● At lower altitudes
there are more
air particles and
therefore, higher
pressure.
Boiling water at high altitudes
C2: Experimental Techniques
 1. Name and suggest appropriate
apparatus for the measurement
C2.1 of time, temperature, mass and
volume, including burettes,
Measurement pipettes and measuring cylinders
C2.1 Measurement

Time Temperature Mass

● Equipment: stopwatch ● Equipment: thermometer ● Equipment: electronic

○ usually accurate to ○ normally give
one or two decimal readings to the
places nearest degree
● Units: seconds or Celsius
minutes ○ Digital
○ other units may be thermometers are
used for extremely more precise than
slow reactions traditional
○ 1 minute = 60 thermometers
seconds ● Units: degrees Celsius
( ℃)
balance which normally
give readings to two
decimal places.
○ These must be
tared (set to zero)
before use
● Unit:kilograms (kg) but in
chemistry grams (g) are
most often used
○ 1 kilogram = 1000
grams
C2.1- Volume (liquids)

● The volume of a liquid can be determined using several types of apparatus,

depending on the level of accuracy needed
● approximate volumes: measuring cylinders are used.
● Accurate volumes:
○ Fixed volume: pipettes (usually 10 cm3 or 25 cm3)
○ Variable volume: Burettes (between 0 cm3 and 50 cm3 (e.g. in a titration)
C2.1 - Volume (gases)

● volume of a gas sometimes needs to be measured and is done by collecting it in a

graduated measuring apparatus
○ gas syringe is usually the apparatus used
○ graduated cylinder
■ inverted in water if the gas isn’t water-soluble
■ Upright if the gas happens to be heavier than air and is colored
 1. Interpret simple chromatograms
2. Interpret simple chromatograms,
including the use of Rf values
3. Recognise that mixtures melt and
boil over a range of temperatures
4. Outline how chromatography

C2.2 techniques can be applied to

colourless substances by
exposing chromatograms to
Criteria of Purity
substances called locating agents
(Knowledge of specific locating
agents is not required)
5. Identify substances and assess
their purity from melting point
and boiling point information
C2.2.1: Interpret simple chromatograms

Basic Principle
● Components in a mixture have different tendencies to:
○ Adsorb onto a surface
○ Dissolve in a solvent
Adsorption
● The adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved
solid to a surface.
C2.2.1: Chromatography

All chromatographic methods require:

● A stationary phase (Static part- Solid or Liquid)

● A mobile phase (Moving part- Liquid or Gas)
C2.2.1: Chromatography

Separation of Components

● Components of mixture separates because of its difference in:

○ Adsorption on to the stationary phase
○ solubility in the mobile phase

The substance which is more

soluble in the water will stay
longer in the mobile phase and
move further up the stationary
phase
C2.2.1

If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms

If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all the different
components as separate spots

An impure substance will show up with more than one spot, a pure substance should
only show up with one spot
C2.2.1: Chromatography

Criteria for Purity

C2.2.2: Interpret simple chromatograms, including the use of Rf
values

● The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same

● Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because
it can be compared with Rf values of known substances under the same conditions
C2.2.4: Outline how chromatography techniques can be applied to
colourless substances by exposing chromatograms

● For chromatography to be useful the chemist needs to be able to see the

components move up the paper, which is not the case for invisible samples such as
proteins
● Locating agents are substances which react with the sample and produce a
coloured product which is then visible
● The chromatogram is treated with the agent after the chromatography run has
been carried out, making the sample runs visible to the naked eye

You don’t need to know names of specific agents

C2.2.4: Chromatography and locating agents

E.g. ninhydrin

● Locating agent binds to the chemicals in the spot.

● It produces coloured spot or glows under UV light
C2.2.3: Recognise that mixtures melt and boil over a range of
temperatures

● Pure substances melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures.

○ Eg water has a boiling point of 100°C and a melting point of 0°C
● Mixtures have a range of melting and boiling points as they consist of different
substances that melt or boil at different temperatures
● Melting and boiling points data can therefore be used to distinguish pure
substances from mixtures
● An unknown pure substance can be identified by experimentally determining its
m.p and b.p and comparing to data tables
C2.2.3: Elevation in Boiling point

● An impure substance will not boil at fixed temperature

● Impure substance boil over a range of temperature
● The boiling point will be higher than the pure substance
C2.2.3: Depression in freezing point

● An impure substance will not melt at fixed temperature

● Impure substance melt over a range of temperature
● The melting point will be lower than the pure substance
 C2.2.5: Practice question

Using the data in the table, which of the following substances is most likely
impure? Can you identify what the other substances are?
 1. Describe and explain methods of
separation and purification by
the use of:
a. a suitable solvent
b. Filtration

C2.3 c.
d.
Crystallisation
Distillation
e. fractional distillation
Methods of purification f. paper chromatography
2. Suggest suitable separation and
purification techniques, given
information about the
substances involved
Classification of Matter
C2.3- Summary of Techniques
C2.3.1a: Solvents
C2.3.1a: Solvents

Solute + solvent = solution

Water is not the best solvent for all solutes
C2.3.1a: Solvents

When separating a mixture, you will need to choose the right solvent for your solute

Examples of other solvents

C2.3.1a: Solvents

Remember: Not all solutions are a solid solute in a liquid solvent

C2.3.1b: Filtration
C2.3.1b: Filtration

Physical Property used: Size of particles

Separation of insoluble/dispersed solid particles from a fluid (gas or liquid) by the use
of a filter that allows the fluid to pass through but retains the solid particles.
C2.3.1b: Purification by Filtration

Three important steps

C2.3.1b: Uses of filtration

● Kidneys – Filter Blood

● Water Purifiers
● Waste Water Treatment Plants
● Vacuum Pump
● Air and Oil Filters of Vehicles
● Air conditioning Filters
● Chemistry Laboratory and Industries
C2.3.1c: Crystallisation
C2.3.1c: Crystallisation- States of matter
C2.3.1c: Crystallisation- Theory

Physical property used: Solubility

● Crystallization is a technique which chemists use to purify solid compounds.

● Crystallization is based on the principles of solubility:
○ compounds (solutes) tend to be more soluble in hot liquids (solvents) than they are in
cold liquids.
○ If a saturated hot solution is allowed to cool, the solute is no longer soluble in the
solvent and forms crystals of pure compound.
● Impurities are excluded from the growing crystals and the pure solid crystals can
be separated from the dissolved impurities by filtration.
C2.3.1.c: Crystallisation- Impurities

The unwanted impurities should be either:

● insoluble in the hot solvent.
○ The hot solution can be filtered to remove these impurities
● very soluble in the solvent at room temperature
○ These impurities will stay in the solution while the solute
crystallises
 C2.3.1c: Crystallisation- Basic Steps

NaCl has very

little change in
solubility.
Evaporation,
not
crystallisation,
is used

Step 1: Choose suitable solvent

The compound should be:

● very soluble at the boiling point of the solvent
● only sparingly soluble in the solvent at room temperature.
Eg. solubility of benzoic acid in water at 10°C is 2.1g/L while at 95 °C the solubility is 68 g/L.
C2.3.1c: Crystallisation- Basic Steps

Step 2: Preparing Supersaturated Solution

Saturated Solution:
The solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the given temperature is
called saturated solution.
C2.3.1c: Crystallisation- Basic Steps

Step 3: Filtering of the Hot Solution

If the hot solution contains insoluble impurities.

Step 4: Cooling the Concentrated Solution for Crystallization

Step 5: Separation and Drying of Crystals

C2.3.1d: Distillation
C2.3.1d: Simple distillation

Physical Property used: Boiling Point

Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solute

This method can only be used to separate mixtures where the components differ widely
in boiling point (by approx. 25 C).

● Salt and water (1,465°C vs 100°C)

● Acetone and water ( 56°C vs 100 °C)
C2.3.1d: Simple distillation
C2.3.1e: Fractional Distillation
C2.3.1d: Mixtures with similar boiling points

When a mixture with components with similar boiling points is heated, the vapour will
contain a mixture of both components.
C2.3.1e: Fractional Distillation

Physical property used: Boiling point

● special distillation method used to separate mixtures where the components have
only slight difference in boiling point
○ E.g. Ethanol and water (78℃ and 100 ℃)
C2.3.1e: Fractionating column

● Establishes a
temperature gradient
● Allows repeated
condensation and
evaporation
● Component with
higher boiling point
will condense in low
temperature zone
Crystallisation experiment
Crystallising Alum
1. Pour hot water in beaker (80 to 100 mL) into 250 mL beaker
2. Add alum until it no longer dissolves
3. Filter hot solution through filter paper into evaporating dish
4. Heat over bunsen burner until crystallisation point is
reached
a. Dip stirring rod into solution and then blow on stirring
rod. If crystals form it is ready.
5. Drape string into basin
6. Leave for crystals to grow
C3: atoms, elements and compounds

Much of this topic overlaps with what we learn in normal science classes
 1. Identify physical and chemical
changes, and understand the
C3.1 differences between them (year 8
science)
Physical and chemical changes
C3.1.1
 1. Describe the differences between
elements, mixtures and
compounds, and between metals
C3.2 and non-metals (year 8 science)
2. Define the terms solvent, solute,
Elements, compounds and solution and concentration (year
mixtures 7 science)
C3.2.1: Describe the differences between elements, mixtures and
compounds, and between metals and non-metals
Element Compound Mixture

● A substance made of ● A pure substance made up ● A combination of two or

atoms that all contain the
same number of protons
(one type of atom) and
cannot be split into
anything simpler
● There is a limited number
of elements and all
elements are found on the
Periodic Table
of two or more elements more substances (elements
chemically combined and/or compounds) that are
● There is an unlimited not chemically combined
number of compounds ● Mixtures can be separated
● Compounds cannot be by physical methods such
separated into their as filtration or evaporation
elements by physical
means

hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4), sand and water, oil and water,
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), sulphur powder and iron filings
carbon dioxide (CO2)
C3.2.1: Metals and non-metals
● The Periodic Table
contains over 100
different elements
● They can be divided
into two broad types:
metals and nonmetals
● Most of the elements
are metals and a small
number of elements
display properties of
both types. These
elements are called
metalloids or
semimetals
C3.2.2: metals and non-metals
Metals
● Conduct heat and electricity
● Are malleable and ductile (can be
hammered and pulled into different
shapes)
● Tend to be lustrous (shiny)
● Have high density and usually have
high melting points
● Form positive ions through electron
loss
● Form basic oxides
Copper, sodium, gold
Non-metals
● Do not conduct heat and electricity
● Are brittle and delicate when solid and
easily break up
● Tend to be dull and nonreflective
● Have low density and low melting
points (many are gases at room
temperature)
● Form negative ions through electron
gain (except for hydrogen)
● Form acidic oxides
Carbon, oxygen, bromine
C3.2.2: Define the terms solvent, solute, solution and
concentration
When a solid dissolves in a liquid:

● the substance that dissolves is called the solute

● the liquid in which it dissolves is called the solvent
● the liquid formed is a solution
● Concentration refers to how much solute has dissolved in the solvent
○ High concentration= a lot of solute
○ Low concentration= a little solute
 1. Describe the structure of an atom in terms of a central
nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and ‘shells’ of
electrons
2. Describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and
understand the significance of the noble gas electronic
structures and of the outer-shell electrons
3. State the relative charge and approximate relative mass
of a proton, a neutron and an electron
4. Define and use proton number (atomic number) as the

C3.3 5.
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Define and use nucleon number (mass number) as the
total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom
Atomic structure and the periodic 6. Use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to
table explain the basis of the Periodic Table, with special
reference to the elements of proton numbers 1 to 20
7. Define isotopes as atoms of the same element which
have the same proton number but a different nucleon
number
8. Understand that isotopes have the same properties
because they have the same number of electrons in their
outer shell
This is all covered in normal science in “Material Girl”
C3.3.1: Describe the structure of an atom in terms of a central
nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and ‘shells’ of electrons
C3.3.2: Describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and understand
the significance of the noble gas electronic structures and of the outer-
shell electrons
● Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus.
● The first shell, closest to the nucleus, is the lowest energy level.
● The further a shell is from the nucleus, the higher the energy level.
● Each shell can hold only a certain number of electrons.
● These are the rules:

● The distribution of
electrons in the atom to
the right is written in a
short way as 288.
○ (Or sometimes as
2,8,8 or 2.8.8.)
C3.3.3: State the relative charge and approximate relative mass of a
proton, a neutron and an electron
C3.3.4: Define and use proton number (atomic number) as the
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
● The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom.
● The symbol for this number is Z
● It is also the number of electrons present in an atom and determines the position
of the element on the Periodic Table
C3.3.5: Define and use nucleon number (mass number) as the total
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

● Nucleon number (or mass number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
● The symbol for this number is A
● The nucleon number minus the proton number gives you the number of neutrons
of an atom
○ Note that protons and neutrons can collectively be called nucleons.
● The atomic number and mass number for every element is on the Periodic Table

Both the atomic number and the mass number are given on the Periodic
Table but it can be easy to confuse them.Think MASS = MASSIVE, as the
mass number is always the bigger of the two numbers, the other smaller
one is thus the atomic / proton number.
C3.3.6: Use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to
explain the basis of the Periodic Table, with special reference to the
elements of proton numbers 1 to 20

● Elements are arranged on the Periodic table in order of increasing atomic number
where each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
○ Hydrogen has 1 proton, helium has 2 protons, lithium has 3 etc.
● The table is arranged in vertical columns called Groups numbered I - VIII and in
rows called Periods
● Elements in the same group have the same amount of electrons in their outer
shell, which gives them similar chemical properties
● Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells
C3.3.7: Define isotopes as atoms of the same element which have the
same proton number but a different nucleon number
● Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons
and electrons but a different number of neutrons.
● The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and
then the mass number.
● So C-14 is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 14 - 6 = 8
neutrons.
C3.3.8: Understand that isotopes have the same properties because
they have the same number of electrons in their outer shell

● Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics

● This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells and
this is what determines an atom's chemistry
○ The electrons are what determine how they bond/ react with other atoms
● The difference between isotopes is the neutrons which are neutral particles within
the nucleus and add mass only
Isotopes

● Covered in normal
Science
● Revision on STILE
Bonding
 1. Describe the formation of ions by
electron loss or gain
2. Use dot-and-cross diagrams to
describe the formation of ionic bonds
between Group I and Group VII
3. Describe the formation of ionic bonds

C3.4 between metallic and non-metallic

elements to include the strong
attraction between ions because of
Ions and ionic bonds their opposite electrical charges
4. Describe the lattice structure of ionic
compounds as a regular arrangement
of alternating positive and negative
ions, exemplified by the sodium
chloride structure
Ionic v Covalent Bonding
● Ionic Bonding- ChemThink Link
● Covalent Bonding- ChemThink Link
C3.4.1: Describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain

● An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain
of electrons
● This loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain a full outer shell of electrons
● The electronic structure of an ion will be the same as that of a noble gas – such as
helium, neon and argon
Metals: all metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions
called cations
Non-metals: all non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively
charged ions called anions
C3.4.2: Use dot-and-cross diagrams to describe the formation of ionic
bonds between Group I and Group VII
DOT-AND-CROSS DIAGRAMS: Shows the ionic bonds between ions formed from the
loss and gain of Electrons

Only the outer shell of Electrons are drawn

Electrons in one atom will be represented as Crosses

Electrons in other atom will be represented as circles to indicate which ion loses or
gains electrons

Charges of each ion is displayed on the upper right corner of each ion
Example 1

● Sodium is a Group 1 Metal so will lose one outer Electron to another atom to have a
full outer shell of Electrons
○ They will lose an Electron to form a Positive ion with the Charge 1 +
● Chlorine is a Group 7 Non-Metal so will gain an Electron to have a full outer shell of
Electrons
● One Electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the Sodium atom to the
outer shell of the Chlorine atom
○ Chlorine atom will gain an Electron to form a Negative ion with Charge 1-

FORMULAE OF IONIC COMPOUND: NaCl

Example 2

● Magnesium is a Group 2 Metal so will lose two outer Electrons to another atom to
have a full outer shell of Electrons
○ They will lose two Electrons to form a Positive ion with the Charge 2+
● Oxygen is a Group 6 Non - Metal so will gain two Electrons to have a full outer shell
of Electrons
● Two Electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the Magnesium atom to
the outer shell of the Oxygen atom
○ Oxygen atom will gain two Electrons to form a Negative ion with Charge 2-

FORMULAE OF IONIC COMPOUND: MgO

Ionic bonding dot and cross diagram
Covalent bonding dot and cross diagram
C3.4.3: Describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and
non-metallic elements to include the strong attraction between ions
because of their opposite electrical charges

The positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between opposite charges.

This is what holds ionic compounds together

C3.4.4: Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular
arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions, exemplified by
the sodium chloride structure
● Lattice structure refers to the arrangement of the atoms of a substance in 3D space
● In lattice structures, the atoms are arranged in an ordered and repeating fashion
● The lattices formed by ionic compounds consist of a regular arrangement of
alternating positive and negative ions
Ionic Formula -Polyatomic ions
CO32- Carbonate

HCO3- Hydrogencarbonate

SO42- Sulfate

OH - Hydroxide

NO3- Nitrate

NH4+ Ammonium

END OF TERM 1!!

 1. State that non-metallic elements form
simple molecules with covalent bonds
between atoms
2. Describe the formation of single covalent
bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3 and HCl as
the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to
the noble gas configuration including the

C3.5
use of dot-and-cross diagrams
3. Use and draw dot-and-cross diagrams to
represent the bonding in the more
complex covalent molecules such as N2,
Molecules and covalent bonds
C2H4, CH3OH, and CO2
4. Describe the differences in volatility,
solubility and electrical conductivity
between ionic and covalent compounds
5. Explain the differences in melting point
and boiling point of ionic and covalent
compounds in terms of attractive forces
C3.5.1: State that non-metallic elements form simple molecules with
covalent bonds between atoms
● Covalent compounds are formed when electrons are shared between atoms
● Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding
● As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons
● When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, we describe them as
‘molecules’
C3.5.2: Describe the formation of single covalent bonds in H2, Cl2,
H2O, CH4, NH3 and HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons leading
to the noble gas configuration including the use of dot-and-cross
diagrams
● The sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration
○ all of these compounds have single covalent bonds e.g. water (H2O):
● E.g. two hydrogen atoms reacting.
○ Both have a configuration of just 1. So, in order to be stable both require an extra atom.
○ they share their one electron with the other, so both atoms now have two electrons- they are stable.
○ This is a single covalent bond. Only one pair of electrons is shared between the two atoms.
○ A hydrogen molecule is formed denoted as H2.
● E.g. water
○ Hydrogen has 1 valence electron and oxygen has (configuration: 2, 6) 6 valence electrons.
○ Oxygen needs two electrons to be stable and hydrogen needs one.
○ a second hydrogen atom is brought into play. Now there are two hydrogen atoms that need one
electron each and a oxygen atoms that needs two electrons.
○ the hydrogen atoms and oxygen atom shares 2 pairs of electrons with each other.
○ This is also a single covalent bond, since the two bonds created are not within the same atoms!
○ Now you have H2O (water!) as the product.
C3.5.3: Use and draw dot-and-cross diagrams to represent the
bonding in the more complex covalent molecules such as N2, C2H4,
CH3OH, and CO2
● In each of the examples we have just looked at, each atom were only sharing one
electron each between two atoms.
● When atoms need to share more than one electron, double and triple bonds are
formed.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

The reaction between carbon and oxygen (both non-metals) produces a double
covalent bond.

● Oxygen has a 6 valence electrons and carbon has 4 valence electrons.

○ Oxygen needs 2 more electrons to be stable and carbon needs 4 more electrons to be stable.
● So first we need to add one more oxygen atom, so that there are now a total of 4
oxygen valence electrons as well.
● Now, four electrons are shared between the oxygen atoms and carbon atoms, as
shown in the diagram.
○ Each oxygen atom shares two pairs of electrons with the carbon atom.
● Now all atoms are stable. This is a double covalent bond, since two pairs of
electrons are being shared between both atoms.
N2, C2H4 and CH3OH

N2 (Nitrogen)
C2H4 (ethene)

CH3OH (methanol)
Some important concepts: intermolecular vs intramolecular forces

Covalent bonds hold together the atoms of a molecule.

Weak intermolecular forces of attraction hold the
molecule together.

When a substance changes state:

● Ionic compounds: strong ionic bonds are broken

● Covalent: weak intermolecular forces are broken
Some important concepts: volatility

● Volatility describes how easily a substance will vaporize (turn into a gas or vapor).
● A volatile substance can be defined as
○ a substance that evaporates readily at normal temperatures and/or
○ one that has a measurable vapor pressure.
● The term volatile usually applies to liquids.
● However, some solid materials can change directly from solid to vapor without
ever becoming liquid, a process called sublimation.
Some important concepts: polarity

● Polarity refers to the distribution of electrons in a bond or molecule.

● In covalent substances where electrons are usually shared equally, there is an
even distribution of electrons, so the negative charge produced by the electrons is
also spread out evenly.
○ Covalent substances are usually nonpolar.
● This doesn’t occur in ionic substances as the electrons are transferred from one
atom to another, not shared.
○ Ionic substances thus tend to be polar.
Some important concepts: electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity refers to the movement of charged particles through matter.

These charged particles can be small negatively charged electrons or larger charged
ions.
C3.5.4: Describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical
conductivity between ionic and covalent compounds
Ionic compounds

● Have high melting and boiling points so

ionic compounds are usually solid at
room temperature
● Not volatile so they don't evaporate easily
● Usually water-soluble as both ionic
compounds and water are polar
● Conduct electricity in molten state or in
solution as they have ions that can move
and carry a charge
C3.5.4 continued

Covalent compounds

● Have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are usually liquids or
gases at room temperature
● Usually volatile which is why many covalent organic compounds have distinct
aromas
● Usually not water-soluble as covalent compounds tend to be nonpolar but can
dissolve in organic solvents
● Cannot conduct electricity as all electrons are involved in bonding so there are no
free electrons or ions to carry the charge
C3.5.6: Explain the differences in melting point and boiling point of
ionic and covalent compounds in terms of attractive forces

● Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points

○ This is because the oppositely charged ions in the lattice structure are attracted to each
other by strong electrostatic forces which hold them firmly in place
○ Large amounts of energy are needed to overcome these forces so the m.p. and b.p. are
high
● Simple covalent substances, such as carbon dioxide and methane, have very strong covalent
bonds between the atoms in each molecule, but much weaker intermolecular forces between
individual molecules
○ When one of these substances melts or boils, it is these weak intermolecular forces that
break, not the strong covalent bonds
○ Less energy is needed to break the molecules apart, so they have lower m.p. and b.p.
than ionic compounds
 1. State that there are several
different forms of carbon,
including diamond and
graphite
2. Describe the giant covalent
C3.6 structures of diamond and
graphite
Macromolecules 3. Relate the structures of
diamond and graphite to their
uses, e.g. graphite as a
lubricant and a conductor and
diamond in cutting tools
Giant covalent structures
C3.6.1:State that there are several different forms of carbon,
including diamond and graphite
● Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which have giant covalent
structures
○ This class of substances contains a lot of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent atoms by
covalent bonds forming a giant lattice structure
● Giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points as they have many
strong covalent bonds that need to be broken down
○ Large amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces and break down bonds
C3.6.2: Describe the giant covalent structures of diamond and
graphite
Diamond

Each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron

All the covalent bonds are identical and strong with no weak intermolecular forces
C3.6.2: continued
Graphite

● Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagonal-shaped

forms, leaving one free electron per carbon atom
● These free electrons exist in between the layers and are free to move and carry
charge, hence graphite can conduct electricity
● The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers are connected
to each other by weak intermolecular forces only, hence the layers can slide over
each other making graphite slippery and smooth
C3.6.3: Relate the structures of diamond and graphite to their uses,
e.g. graphite as a lubricant and a conductor and diamond in cutting
tools
Diamond:

● Does not conduct electricity

● Has a very high melting point (due to its strong covalent bonds)
● Is extremely hard and dense (3.51 g/cm3)
● Does not scratch easily

This is why diamond is used for cutting and drilling metals and glass.

● The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with
diamonds
● Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond-tipped
C3.6.3: continued

Graphite:

● Conducts electricity
● Has a very high melting point
● Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond (2.25 g/cm3)

The soft and slippery properties allows graphite to be used in pencils and as an
industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks

It is also used to make non-reactive electrodes for electrolysis due to its ability to
conduct electricity
Are diamonds still precious?
 1. Use the symbols of the elements and write
the formulae of simple compounds
2. Determine the formula of an ionic
compound from the charges on the ions
present
3. Deduce the formula of a simple compound
from the relative numbers of atoms
present
C4a 4. Deduce the formula of a simple compound
from a model or a diagrammatic
representation
Stoichiometry 5. Construct and use word equations
6. Interpret and balance simple symbol
equations
7. Construct and use symbol equations, with
state symbols, including ionic equations
8. Deduce the balanced equation of a
chemical reaction, given relevant
information
 9. Define relative atomic mass, Ar as the
average mass of naturally occurring
atoms of an element on a scale where
the 12C atom has a mass of exactly 12
units
10. Define relative molecular mass, Mr
C4b and calculate it as the sum of the
relative atomic masses (the term
relative formula mass or Mr will be
used for ionic compounds)
11. Calculate stoichiometric reacting
masses, volumes of gases and
solutions and solution concentrations
expressed in g / dm3 and mol / dm3
Define relative atomic mass, Ar
Relative atomic mass (Ar)
Define relative molecular mass, Mr
Relative molecular mass (Mr)

mass of one molecule of an element compared to 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12
atom

THEREFORE

The relative molecular mass of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses
of the atoms as given in the molecular formula

● Water (H2O)= (2x1.008) + 16 = 18.02

● Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)= 14 + (2x16)=46
Relative Formula Mass (Mr)

● Many compounds, particularly ionic ones, do not exist as discrete molecules

● The chemical formula tells us the ratio of elements in the compound
○ E.g. NaCl has 1 sodium for every 1 chlorine
○ CaF2 has 1 calcium for every 2 fluorine ions
● For these compounds, relative formula mass (or formula weight) is used

● Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is 22.99 + 35.45= 58.44

● Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) is 40.08 + (2x19)= 78.1

Note: formula mass is often incorrectly called molecular weight in books

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry

If you know the actual amounts of two substances that react, you can:

● predict other amounts that will react

● say how much product will form
Two rules of chemistry

Rule 1: Elements always react in the same ratio, to form a given compound.

● For example, when carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide: 6 g of carbon
combines with 16 g of oxygen, so 12 g of carbon will combine with 32 g of oxygen,
and so on.

Rule 2: The total mass does not change, during a chemical reaction (law of
conservation of mass).

● So total mass of reactants = total mass of products.

● So:
○ 6 g of carbon and 16 g of oxygen give 22 g of carbon dioxide
○ 12 g of carbon and 32 g of oxygen give 44 g of carbon dioxide.
Mass and % problems

Example: 64 g of copper reacts with 16 g of oxygen to give the black compound

copper(II) oxide.
Cu + O2 → CuO

64g + 16g = ?

1. What mass of copper oxide formed?

Rule 2: The total mass does not change, during a chemical reaction.

64 + 16= 80 g
Mass and % problems

Example: 64 g of copper reacts with 16 g of oxygen to give the black compound

copper(II) oxide.
Cu + O2 → CuO

64g + 16g = 80

4 : 1 5

2. What mass of oxygen will react with 32 g of copper?

Rule 1: Elements always react in the same ratio, to form a given compound.

Ratio of Cu:O is 4:1

If 32g of copper is used, 32/4 g of oxygen will be used: 8 g

Mass and % problems

Example: 64 g of copper reacts with 16 g of oxygen to give the black compound

copper(II) oxide.
Cu + O2 → CuO

64g + 16g = ?

2. What mass of oxygen will react with 32 g of copper?

Rule 1: Elements always react in the same ratio, to form a given compound.

Or: find out how much less copper is being used (32/64=0.5) and multiply by unknown
mass
Mass and % problems

Example: 64 g of copper reacts with 16 g of oxygen to give the black compound

copper(II) oxide. Cu + O2 → CuO

32 + 8 = ?

4 : 1 : 5

3. What mass of copper(II) oxide will be formed, in Q2

Method 1 Method 2 Method 3

Product mass Ratio remains the same Equation:

=reactants mass O2: CuO
X = 32 +8 1:5
=40g 8: 40
CuO= 40g
Mass and % problems

Example: 64 g of copper reacts with 16 g of oxygen to give the black compound

copper(II) oxide. Cu + O2 → CuO

? + ? = 8

4 : 1 : 5

3. How much copper and oxygen will give 8 g of copper(II) oxide?

Method 1 Method 2

Ratio remains the same Equation:

Cu:O2: CuO
4:1:5
6.4:1.6: 8
Cu=6.4g
O2= 1.6g
Term 2
Year 9 Physical Science
 9. Define relative atomic mass, Ar as the
average mass of naturally occurring
atoms of an element on a scale where
the 12C atom has a mass of exactly 12
units
10. Define relative molecular mass, Mr
C4b and calculate it as the sum of the
relative atomic masses (the term
relative formula mass or Mr will be
used for ionic compounds)
11. Calculate stoichiometric reacting
masses, volumes of gases and
solutions and solution
concentrations expressed in g / dm3
and mol / dm3
Introduction to the Mole
Kahoot Challenge

https://kahoot.it/challenge/06165556?challenge-id=ebf2cd3a-5dbc-4150-bf5f-42a74f76
4799_1587613754982
The mole
The mole – a Chemist’s counting unit

● Quantitative chemistry can be very useful. However, counting the number of atoms
or particles in a sample can be difficult since atoms and compounds are so small.
● Chemists use a special counting unit called the mole to refer to a set number of
particles.
● Every time, the word mole (or mol) is used, it refers to this set number of particles.
Counting units

A mole of atoms
A dozen eggs

A pair of socks
AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT

● How did scientists come up with this incredibly large number?

● It was found that one mole of any substance is the same number of particles as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon 12.
● One mole refers to the number of carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon which is
6.022x10 23
● This number is known as Avogadro’s constant or Avogadro’s number, NA
● In scientific notation, NA = 6.022 x 10 23 mol
● One mole (mol) of particles contains 6.022 x 10 23 particles.
What does 6.02 x 1023 particles look like?

https://www.wired.com/2010/10/how-big-is-a-mole/
More examples of moles
Molar mass

A mole of atoms of an element is the mass that in grams is numerically equal to the
relative atomic mass

A mole of a compound is the mass that in grams is numerically equal to the relative
molecular mass or relative formula mass

Example:

● 1 mole of copper (relative atomic mass 63.6) is 63.6g

● 1 mole of nitrogen dioxide (relative molecular mass 46) is 46g
Moles and mass
Examples

Example 1

Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of bromine atoms.

Mass = moles x MM

The Ar of bromine is 80, so 1 mole of bromine atoms has a

mass of 80 g.

So 0.5 moles of bromine atoms has a mass of 0.5 x 80 g, or

40 g.
Examples

Example 2

Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of bromine molecules.

A bromine molecule contains 2 atoms, so its Mr is 160.

So 0.5 moles of bromine molecules has a mass of 0.5 x 160

g, or 80 g.
Examples

Example 3

How many moles of oxygen molecules are in 64 g of

oxygen?

Moles =mass/MM

The Mr of oxygen is 32, so 32 g of it is 1 mole.

Therefore 64 g is 64/32 moles, or 2 moles of oxygen

molecules.
Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses
What an equation tells you

Or using symbol equations:

C + O2 → CO2

This equation tells you that:

1 carbon atom reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen to give 1 molecule of carbon

dioxide
What an equation tells you

Now suppose there is 1 mole of carbon atoms.

Then we can say that:

1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of oxygen to give 1 mole of carbon dioxide

This is called the mole ratio and we can determine it by looking at the coefficents (the
numbers in front of the molecules) in a balanced equation

E.g

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

2 moles of hydrogen will react with 1 mole of oxygen to form 2 moles of water
Calculating masses from equations

These are the steps to follow:

1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction. (It gives the moles ratio)
2. Write down the Ar or Mr for each substance that takes part.
3. Using Ar or Mr, change the moles in the equation to grams.
4. Once you know the theoretical masses from the equation, you can then find any
actual mass.
Calculating masses from equations

Example

Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water. What mass of oxygen is needed for 1 g of
hydrogen, and what mass of water is obtained?

Step 1: The equation for the reaction is: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l )

Step 2: Ar : H = 1, O= 16. Mr : H2 = 2, O2=32, H2O =18

Step 3: So, for the equation, the amounts in grams are:

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)

2x2 g 32 g 2 x18 g or
Calculating masses from equations

Example

Step 4: But you start with only 1 g of hydrogen, so the actual masses are:

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)

1g 32 / 4 g 36 / 4 g or
1g 8g 9g

So 1 g of hydrogen needs 8 g of oxygen to burn, and gives 9 g of water.

Another way of getting there:
volumes of gases
Note

dm3 = cubic decimetre.

1 dm3= 1 L

1 dm3= 1000 cm3

rtp= room temperature and pressure

We take room temperature and pressure as the standard conditions for comparing
gases; rtp is 20 °C and 1 atmosphere.
Avagadro’s Law- Molar volume

1 mole of every gas occupies the same volume, at the same temperature and
pressure (rtp). At room temperature and pressure, this volume is 24 dm3

molar volume: The volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas. The molar volume of a gas is
24 dm3 at rtp.
Gas volume calculation
Examples

Example 1

What volume does 0.25 moles of a gas occupy

at rtp?

volume= moles x 24 dm3

1 mole occupies 24 dm3 so 0.25 moles

occupies 0.25 x 24 dm3= 6 dm3

so 0.25 moles of any gas occupies 6 dm3 (or

6000 cm3) at rtp.
Example 2

When sulfur burns in air it forms sulfur dioxide. What volume of this gas is produced
when 1 g of sulfur burns? (Ar : S = 32.)

The equation for the reaction is:

S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)

● 32 g of sulfur atoms = 1 mole of sulfur atoms, so 1 g = 1/32 mole or 0.03125 moles

of sulfur atoms.
● 1 mole of sulfur atoms gives 1 mole of sulfur dioxide molecules
○ so 0.03125 moles give 0.03125 moles.
● 1 mole of sulfur dioxide molecules has a volume of 24 dm3 at rtp so 0.03125 moles
has a volume of 0.03125 x 24 dm3 at rtp, or 0.75 dm3.

So 0.75 dm3 (or 750 cm3) of sulfur dioxide are produced

The concentration of a solution
Concentration
 Concentration

A solution is:
● Highly concentrated when there are
many solute particles to a given volume
of solvent (high solute to solvent ratio)

● Dilute if there are few solute particles for

the same amount of solvent. (low solute
to solvent ratio
How to calculate concentration
Putting the calculation triangles all together
Empirical Formula
Empirical Formula
Empirical Formula

● The empirical formula of a compound represents the chemical formula using the
simplest whole number ratio of the elements in that compound.

● Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 so its empirical formula is CH2O.

● The empirical formula has the same ratio of atoms (i.e. there are twice as many
hydrogen atoms as carbon and oxygen atoms), but the subscripts have been
simplified as much as possible.
Empirical formula

The formula of a compound can tell you:

● How many moles of the different atoms combine

● How many grams of the different elements combine

Example

CO2 : 1 carbon atom combines with 2 atoms of oxygen so

:1 mole of carbon combines with 2 moles of oxygen

Changes to grams:

: 12 grams of carbon combines with 32 grams of oxygen

Finding empirical formula

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Find the masses that Change grams to moles This tells you the ratio So you can write the
combine, in grams, by of atoms in which atoms formula
experimenting combine

E.g.sulfur and oxygen E.g. SO2

E.g. 32 grams of sulfur E.g. moles of
combine in a 1:2 ratio
combine with 32 grams of sulfur=32/32=1
oxygen Moles of oxygen= 32/16=2
Finding Molecular formula from Empirical formula

1. Molar mass is needed

2. Write out a list of possible molecular formulae, and comparing their molar masses
to the given molar mass.
a. All of the possible molecular formulae have the same ratio of atoms as the empirical formula
3. Or divide molecular molar mass by empirical molar mass to find out how many
units of the empirical formula are needed.

Example

empirical formula of a compound is CH2O, molar mass was experimentally determined

to be 120g mol −1
Finding Molecular formula from Empirical formula

Example

empirical formula of a compound is CH2O, molar mass was experimentally determined

to be 120g mol −1

OR: molar mass of CH2O = 30.026 g/mol

120.8/30.026= 4
4 x CH O= C H O
% yield
Yield

● Yield is the amount of product you receive from a reaction

● Actual yield= how much product you actually got at the end of experiment (what
you weigh)
● Theoretical yield= the mass that you calculate using stoichiometry

In chemistry we calculate %yield to find out how much of the possible yield we got. In
industry, chemists want the highest % yield possible