MODULE 1

MECHANICS
UNIT 1 FORCES
1.1 What is a force?
A force:
• is a pull or push action.
• is a vector
• formula symbol F.
• measured in newton (N).
• represented by an arrow.
- Length of the arrow represents the size or magnitude of the force.
- The arrow head points in the direction in which the force acts.
- The arrow starts from the object that causes the force action.
- Direction in which the force acts is very important:

Quick facts:
If a unit is written in words: only lower case e.g. newton (N).
Abbreviated: with a capital letter: N

www.docscientia.co.za
Contact- and non-contact forces

Forces

Non-contact: Contact:
act over a distance. objects have to be in contact.

Examples: Examples:
1 magnetic forces 1 exerted forces
2 electrostatic forces 2 friction force
3 gravitational forces 3 normal force
(Fg or w) 4 tension forces
5 air friction
6 compression force

Quick facts:
Gravitational force is the force that the earth exerts on
objects on or close to the surface of the earth. It is
calculated: w = mg, g = 9,8 m⋅s-2 gravitational acceleration
downwards.

www.docscientia.co.za
 FN
Quick facts:
Contact force has two components: FT = T
f
- parallel to contact surface
- perpendicular to contact surface.
Fg = w
Contact forces
Applied force (F or Fapplied)
A person or object exerts a force on another object.
The applied force is:
• in the same direction or
• at an angle to the direction of the movement caused.
The components of the force must be calculated in the direction of movement:
Remember: Remember:
Components of force acting at an Components of a force acting at an
angle on flat surface: angle on a slope:

Fx = F cos θ Fx = F sin θ
Fy = F sin θ Fy Fy = F cos θ Fy
Fx
Fx

www.docscientia.co.za
Friction force (Ff or f)
An object moves or tries to move on a certain surface.
The contact surface exerts a friction force on object.
Force always is in:
• in the opposite direction as the attempted motion.
• parallel to the surface on which the object makes contact.
Normal force (FN or N)
Force acts perpendicular to the surface on which an object rests.
Force acts towards the object that lies on or presses onto the contact surface.
Supporting force.
Tension force or tension (FT or T)
When a cable or rope is pulled tension develops in it.
Tension is the same in any position, but the direction of the tension differs.
Mass of any rope/cable is negligible unless instructed otherwise.
Air resistance (Fair or Ff)
Air particles offer resistance to relative motion.
Acts as an opposition force to oppose or prevent motion.
Compression force (Fspring)
Pressure force experienced by a compressed spring.

www.docscientia.co.za
1.2 Forces and free body diagrams
Diagram of forces:
Forces

Force diagrams Free body diagrams

 Shows object with all forces acting 
on it.
 The object is simplified as a block.
 An arrow represents a force in 
magnitude and direction.
Example:
An object is represented as a dot.
 Every force is represented by an
arrow in magnitude and direction.
Arrows point away from the dot.
Example:

FN
FN

F f F
f
Fg
Fg

www.docscientia.co.za
 Quick facts:
Normal force (FN or N): contact force
Drawn 90° from the surface.
Gravitational force (Fg or w): non-contact force
Drawn vertically down-wards from
the centre of the object.
Example:
Pete pushes a crate, mass 20 kg, from rest v
horizontally over a rough surface with an
applied force of 100 N to the right.
The friction force between the crate and
the surface is 20 N. The system can be represented as follows:
Force diagram: Free body diagram:

a
a FN
FN
F = 100 N 20 kg f = 20 N F = 100 N

f = 20 N
w = Fg = 196 N w = Fg = 196 N
FN: normal force of surface on crate; upwards
w = F g: gravitational-attraction force of earth on crate (weight); downwards
f: friction force of surface on crate; direction opposite to motion
F: applied force on crate; in direction of motion

Example:
A wooden block pressed against the wall:
force diagram: free body diagram:

f2

f2 f1
f1
F FN
FN F

Fg = w
Fg = w

www.docscientia.co.za
FN: normal force of wall on block; away from the wall
w = Fg: gravitational-attraction force of earth on block (weight); downwards
f1: frictional force of wall on block; upwards
f2: frictional force of hand on wooden block; upwards
F: applied force of hand on block; towards the wall

Quick facts:
Remember: both the hand and wall exert frictional forces
on the object.

Example:
An object hangs vertically at rest from a cable:
force diagram: free body diagram:

FT = T FT = T

Fg = w

Fg = w

www.docscientia.co.za
FT = T: tension force of rope on object; upwards
w = F g: gravitational attraction force of earth on object (weight); downwards
Example:
100 N
A crate of mass 20 kg is pulled by a force of
100 N at an angle 30°.
30°
A friction force of 20 N develops between the
crate and surface.

force diagram: free body diagram:

FN Fy FN

Fx
f = 20 N Fy
Fx
f = 20 N

w
w

www.docscientia.co.za
Example:
100 N
A crate (20 kg) is pushed with a force
of 100 N at 30°. 30 °
A friction force of 20 N between the
crate and surface.
force diagram: free body diagram:

FN
FN

Fx f = 20 N Fx
f = 20 Fy
N Fy
w w

Quick facts:
NB: A force applied at an angle and its components (F x
and Fy) may not be drawn on the same force diagram.

www.docscientia.co.za
Exercise 1
Draw force and free body diagrams for the following:
1. friction force of 10 N

5 kg 200
N

FN = 49 N FN = 49 N

F = 200 N f = 10 N F = 200 N
f = 10 N

w = 49 N w = 49 N

www.docscientia.co.za
2. friction

A 20°

FN FN

Fx
Fy
f
Fx
f Fy

w w

www.docscientia.co.za
3. friction

A T B F

FN FN
T
A T B F
f
f

w w

FN FN

T
f T F

w
w

www.docscientia.co.za
4. friction

B 10°

FN

Fx
f

Fy
w

FN

Fx f

Fy

www.docscientia.co.za
5. crate at rest on a slope.

15°

FN
FN
f
f

Fx Fx Fy
Fy

www.docscientia.co.za
6. crate sliding down a slope.

20°

FN
f FN
f

Fy Fx
Fx
Fy

www.docscientia.co.za
7. rough surface.
3 kg

5 kg

FN = 29,4 N
T

T
f

w = 29,4 N w = 49 N

FN = 29,4 N
T

f T

w = 49 N
w = 29,4 N
www.docscientia.co.za
8. frictionless surface
B
A

FN FN
FA op B
F B
FB op A
A

w w

FN
FN

FB op
F
A

w w

www.docscientia.co.za
9. crate pulled uphill

20°

F FN
FN
F

Fx Fx
Fy Fy

www.docscientia.co.za
10. upwards movement

10 kg

T T

w = 98 N w = 98 N

www.docscientia.co.za
1.3 Static and kinetic (dynamic) friction
Friction is a contact force.
Friction develops when two objects are
in close contact.
Solid surfaces are generally course or rough. Two objects sliding (or trying to slide)
against each other, cause uneven parts to rub roughly against each other.
Friction develops to oppose motion.

Quick facts:
Friction force acts parallel to the plane or level of motion, but is
always directed in the opposite direction to the force causing
motion.

Friction force

Static friction Kinetic friction

Only for an object at rest. Only for an object in motion

.

www.docscientia.co.za
 4 Slope Fg replaced by its
FN
components:
F‖ = Fg sin θ
F┴ = Fg cos θ
F‖ FN = Fg cos θ
F┴
θ

Quick facts:
Scientists found that the magnitude of the friction force is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the normal force on
that surface. Mathematically the ratio is written as f α F N.
2. Types of surfaces:
Materials from which surfaces are made play an important role.
Example:
• Smooth tiles are very slippery.
• Slightly melted ice on an ice skate rink makes it very easy to glide over, but a
rubber carpet off the rink makes gliding almost impossible.

www.docscientia.co.za
Increased roughness or uneven surfaces cause friction force to increase between
contact surfaces.
Type of contact surfaces determine the coefficient of friction(µ).

Quick facts:
µ (pronounced “mu”) is the symbol for the coefficient of friction.

The coefficient of friction:

• Symbol: μ
• No unit
• Every surface pair has two coefficients of friction:
• static - the coefficient of friction μS.
• kinetic - the coefficient of friction μK.
• The proportionate value f α FN is known as the coefficient of friction.
• The maximum static coefficient of friction is normally larger than the kinetic
coefficient of friction.
• Thus: μS > μK
• The smaller μ the less the resistance offered by one surface moving across
another.
• Normally has a value less than 1.

www.docscientia.co.za
How to reduce friction:
• Surfaces can be lubricated with oil, grease, oil graphite.
• Wet surfaces with any liquid to lessen contact.

Contact surfaces of static and kinetic coefficients of friction:

Contact surface µS µK
Cast iron on cast iron 1,1 0,15
Glass on glass 0,94 0,4
Leather on oak wood 0,61 0,52
Wood on wood 0,25 – 0,5 0,2
Ice on ice 0,1 0,03
Static friction ( fS )

Static friction is resistance that a surface of an object offers another

contact surface if there is no relative motion between the objects.

coefficient of friction (no unit)

fS(maks) = µSFN Where:
µS: static coefficient of friction
static friction (N) FN : normal force in newton (N)
normal force (N)
www.docscientia.co.za
Static friction force:
• is independent of the size (area) of the contact surface.
• is dependent on the mass (and gravitational force) of the object.
• is dependent on the type of the surface area in contact with each other.
• acts in opposite direction to which the object moves.
• is directly proportional to the normal force of the surface on the object.

Kinetic friction ( fK )

Kinetic friction is the friction force of one contact surface on another when
one or both objects move.

coefficient of friction (no unit)

F K = µ KFN
static friction (N) normal force (N)
Where:
µK: kinetic coefficient of friction
FN: normal force

www.docscientia.co.za
Kinetic friction force:
• is independent of the size (area) of the contact surfaces.
• is dependent on the mass (and gravitational force) of the object.
• dependent on the nature of the surface materials in contact with each other.
• acts against the direction of motion
• is normally smaller than fS(max).
• is directly proportional to the normal force.
Example:
Jan pushes a crate (10 kg) across a rough floor surface.
Magnitude of the friction force before the crate starts to move is 80 N.
After the crate started to move friction force changed to 60 N.
Determine the value of the static coefficient of friction:
Fg = mg fS(max) = µSFN
= 10(9,8) 80 = µS(98)
= 98 N µS = 0,82

Now determine the kinetic the coefficient of friction.

fK = µKFN
60 = µK(98)
µK = 0,61
www.docscientia.co.za
 Quick facts:
The kinetic coefficient of friction µK is as expected, smaller
than the static coefficient of friction µS.
An object resting on a rough surface
Suppose an object of mass m rests on a horizontal surface. Jan exerts a force on
the object and pushes harder until the object is at the point of moving:

i No horizontal force. Fapplied = 0 N

FN
Object maintains ∴ fS = 0 N
static equilibrium.
Fg
ii Applied force but
FN ∴ fS = Fapplied
object still not in F
motion. fS
Fg
iii Applied force FN ∴ fS (max) = FT
increases without F
fS = µSFN
causing motion until = µS⋅mg
object is at the point Fg
to start motion. www.docscientia.co.za
.
iv Object turned onto fS ≤ µSFN and
its side. FN fS(max) = µSFN
F
fS = µS⋅mg
but: mass same
Fg
∴ Fg unchanged
∴ FN unchanged
∴ fS unchanged
FN
v Applied force F fK = µKFN
larger than fS⋅max. fK
= µK⋅mg
Object begins to Fg
move.
Friction force now
FN
kinetic.
F
vi Applied force at θ No vertical motion for object
angle θ to the ∴ vertical balanced.
horizontal. Fg ∴ FN = Fg – Fy and
First calculate the FK = µ F N
components of FT. ∴ fK = µ⋅( Fg – Fy)
Fx = F⋅cosθ and
Fy = F⋅sinθ fK < if FT acts on object.
www.docscientia.co.za
vii Applied pushing No vertical motion for
force at angle θ to FN object ∴ vertical
F
the horizontal. balanced
Calculate the FN = F g + F y
components of FT. and fK = µ FN
Fx = F⋅cosθ ∴ fK = µ⋅( Fg + Fy)
Fg
Fy = F⋅sinθ ∴ fK > if FT acts on
object.

Quick facts:
The friction force can never be larger than the
applied force!

www.docscientia.co.za
Graph of friction force (F) of a horizontally applied force (F) for an object
that starts to move on a rough surface:

object at rest object accelerates

fS = Fapplied ≤ µs FN fK = µKFN

object ready to start motion

∴ fS (max) = µSFN
friction force f (N)

FK constant

applied force FT (N)

Quick facts:
fK stays constant for a specific object and surface.
www.docscientia.co.za
An object at rest on a slope at an angle θ to the horizon:
i Object at rest FN F‖ and fS opposite
FN fS fS = F‖
F‖ = Fg sin θ
F┴ = mg sin θ
θ w θ

FN
ii Object slides fK < fS
fK
downFthe slope. F‖ - fK = ma
N F‖
F┴ fK = μFN
θ = μ(mg cos θ)
θ w

FN F
iii Object pulled fK and F‖ are in the same
upwards against F‖ direction.
the slope. fK F┴ F - F‖ - fK = m x a
θ
fK = μFN
= μK Fg cos θ= μK mg cos θ
www.docscientia.co.za
 iv Object pulled FN F and F‖ are in the
downward on the same direction
fK
slope. (F + F‖) – fK = m x a
F fK = μFN
F‖ F┴ F‖
θ = μKFg cosθ

∴ fS = F‖ = Fg⋅sin θ
When an object on a slope is ready to start sliding:
fS(max) = F‖ = Fg⋅sin θ and fS(max) = µ⋅Fg⋅cos θ
∴ Fg⋅sin θ = µ⋅Fg⋅cos θ
because fS = μSFN of fS/μS = FN

Fg  sinθ Where θ is the angle of the slope to

 µs =  tan θ the horizontal when the object is at
Fg  cos θ
the point to start the slide.

μS = tan θ

On a slope: www.docscientia.co.za
Application:
Pros of friction: Cons of friction:
 Friction develops between tyres and the  Walking or running on loose sand or snow.
surface of the road to prevent skidding.  Friction in a cycling race or Grand Prix
 Friction between surfaces when you turn a lid prevents increased velocities due to the rubber
with your hand. of wheels on the road.
 Soles of shoes on the floor prevent slipping.  Falling on a rough surface e.g. tar takes skin
 Friction in a gear system causes motion of all off due to friction.
parts.  Friction can make it very hard to open
 Stepping on the brakes to prevent an accident containers by hand.
uses friction to slow down the car. Experiment
A: Investigative question
Is it possible to determine static friction force in a system?
Hypothesis:
The static friction force of a system can be determined by changing the weights on
the scale.
Variables:

Dependent variables Dependent variables Constant variables

(changes done (what you measure): (non-changing
deliberately): factors):
Mass Static friction Area
Apparatus
www.docscientia.co.za
www.docscientia.co.za
www.docscientia.co.za