PROJECTION GEOMETRY

INTRODUCTION :

 A radiograph is a two dimensional representation of a three

dimensional object.

 The principals of projection geometry describe the effect of

the focal spot size and position( relative to the object & film)
on image clarity, magnification and distortion.
Image sharpness and resolution
 Several geometric considerations contribute to image clarity,
particularly image sharpness and resolution.

 Sharpness measures how well a boundary between two areas

of differing radiodensity is revealed.

 Image spatial resolution measures how well a radiograph is

able to reveal small objects that are closer together .
Three methods exist for improving the sharpness,
resolution & quality of radiographs:

 Use as small an effective focal spot as practical.

 Increase the distance between the focal spot and the object by
using the long open cylinder cone.

 Minimizing the distance between the object and the film.

Use as small as effective focal spot as practical

 Dental x ray machines should have a nominal focal spot size

of 1.0mm or less. Some tubes used in extra oral radiography
have effective focal spot measuring 0.3mm,which greatly
adds to image clarity.
 The size of the effective focal spot is a function of the angle
of the target with respect to the long axis of the electron beam.

 A larger angle distributes the electron beam over a larger

surface and decreases the heat generated per unit of target
area, thus prolonging tube life.
However this results in a larger effective focal spot and loss of
image clarity.

 A small angle has an greater wearing effect on the target but

results in a smaller effective focal spot, decreased
unsharpness, and increased image sharpness and resolution

This angle of the face of the Target to the central x ray beam is
usually between 10 and 20 degrees.
Photons originating at different places on the focal
Spot result in a zone of un sharpness on the radiograph.
Increase the distance between the focal spot and
the object by using a long, open-ended cylinder.
The longer focal spot- to- object distance minimizes blurring
by using photons whose paths are almost parallel.

Minimize the distance between the object and the

film:
As the object to film distance is reduced , the un sharpness
decreases, resulting in enhanced image clarity.
 IMAGE SIZE DISTORTION
It is the increase in the size of the image on the radiograph
compared with the actual size of the object.

• The divergent paths of the photons in an x-ray beam causes

enlargement of the image on the radiograph.

• It results from the relative distance from focal spot-to-film

and the object to- film.
 Accordingly, increasing the focal spot-to-film distance and
decreasing the object-to-film distance minimizes the image
magnification.

 The use of long, open ended cylinder as an aiming device on

an x-ray machine thus reduces the magnification of images on
a periapical view.

 The technique also improves image clarity by increasing the

distance between the focal spot and object.
IMAGE SHAPE DISTORTION :

• Image shape distortion is the result of unequal magnification

of different parts of the same object.

• This situation arises when not all the parts of an object are at
the same focal spot-to-object distance.
• To minimize shape distortion, the practitioner should
make an effort to align the tube, object and film
carefully using the following guidelines

1. Position the film parallel to the long axis of the object:

Image shape distortion is minimized when the long axis of the film and
the tooth are parallel.

If the central ray of the x-ray beam is perpendicular to the film , but
the object is not parallel to the film, the resultant image is distorted
because of the unequal distance of the various parts of the object from the
film

This type of shape distortion is called foreshortening because it causes

the radiographic image to be shorter than the object.
When the central x-ray is perpendicular to the object
but not to the film, results in elongation when the
object appearing longer on the film than its actual
length.
2. Orient the central ray perpendicular to the object
and the film:

Image shape distortion occurs if the object and film are

parallel but the central ray is not directed at right angles to
each.

In case of maxillary molar projections if the central ray is

oriented with an excessive vertical angulation , the palatal
roots appear disproportionately longer than the buccal roots.
These distortion errors can be prevented by aligning the object
and film parallel with each other and the central ray
perpendicular to both.

PARALLELING AND BISECTING ANGLE

TECHNIQUES :
BISECTING ANGLE TECHNIQUE :
In this method, the film is placed as close to the teeth as
possible without deforming it.
However when the film is in this position, it is not parallel to
the long axis of the teeth.
 This arrangement inherently causes distortion.

 Nevertheless, by directing the central ray perpendicular

to an imaginary plane that bisects the angle between the
tooth and the film, thus, the length of the tooth’s image
on the film corresponds to the actual length of the tooth.

 This angle between a tooth and a film is especially

apparent when teeth are radiographed in the maxilla or
anterior mandible.
 Even though the projected length of the tooth is correct,
the image is still distorted because the film and the object
are not parallel and the x-ray beam is not directed at the
right angles to them.

 This distortion tends to increase along the image

towards the apex.

 When the central ray is not perpendicular to the bisector

plane, the length of the image of a projected tooth
changes.
The central ray should be perpendicular to the long axes of
The tooth and the film.
 If the central ray is directed at an angle that is more positive
than perpendicular to the bisector, the image of the tooth is
foreshortened.

 Likewise, if it is inclined with more negative angulation to

the bisector, the image is elongated.

 This technique is less frequently used for general periapical

radiography as use of the paralleling technique has increased .
 PARALLELING TECHNIQUE :

 It is the preferred method for making intra oral radiograph.

 It derives its name as the result of placing the film parallel to

the long axis of the tooth.

 This procedure minimizes image distortion and best

incorporates the imaging principles.

 To achieve this parallel orientation the practitioner often must

position the film towards the middle of the oral cavity away
from the tooth.
 Although this allows the teeth and film to be parallel, it
results in some image magnification and loss of definition by
increasing unsharpness.

 The paralleling technique uses a relatively long open ended

aiming cylinder(cone) to increase the focal spot-to-object
distance.

 This directs only the most central and parallel rays of the
beam to the film and teeth and reduces image magnification
while increasing image sharpness and resolution.
 The paralleling technique has benefitted from the
development of fast-speed film emulsions, which allows
relatively short exposure times inspite of an increased target-
to- object distance.

 It is desirable to position a film near the middle of the oral

cavity with the paralleling technique, film holders should be
used to support the film in the patient’s mouth.
 OBJECT LOCALIZATION :
 Two methods are frequently used to obtain three
dimensional information.

 The first is to examine two films projected at right angles

to each other.

 The second method is to employ the so called tube shift

technique.

 In the first method, the two projections taken at right

angles to one another localize an object in or about the
maxilla in three dimensions.
 In clinical practice the position of an object on each
radiograph is not relative to the anatomic landmarks.

 This allows the observer to determine the position of the

object or area of interest.

 For example, if a radio opacity is found near the apex of the

first molar on a periapical radiograph, the dentist may take an
occlusal projection to identify its mediolateral position.
The second method used to identify the spatial position of an
object is the TUBE SHIFT TECHNIQUE.
Other names for this procedure are the buccal object rule and
clark’s rule.

 Rationale: the rationale for this procedure derives from the

manner in which the relative position of radiographic images
of two separate objects change when the projection angle at
which the images were made is changed.
 The two radiographs of an object exposed at different angles
are taken and the position of the object in question is
compared with the reference structures.

 If the tube is shifted and directed at the reference object(at the

apex of the tooth) from a more mesial angulation and the
object in question also moves mesially with respect to
reference object, the object lies lingual to the reference
object.
The position of an object may be determined with respect to reference
structures using the tube shift technique.
The position of an object can be determined with respect to reference structures
Using the tube shift technique.
 Alternatively, if the tube is shifted mesially and the object in
question appears to move distally, it lies on the buccal aspect
of reference object.

 These relations can be easily remembered by the acronym

SLOB.

 SLOB – SAME LINGUAL OPPOSITE BUCCAL.

 Thus,if the object in question appears to move in the same

direction with respect to the reference structures as does the
x-ray tube,it is on the lingual aspect of reference object.
 If it appears to move in the opposite direction as the x-ray
tube, it is on the buccal aspect.

 If it does not move with respect to reference object, it lies at

the same depth (in the same vertical plane) as the reference
object.