AP PPT CH 11

AP*
Chapter 11
Properties of Solutions
AP Learning Objectives
 LO 1.16 The student can design and/or interpret the results of an experiment
regarding the absorption of light to determine the concentration of an absorbing
species in a solution. (Sec 11.1)
 LO 2.8 The student can draw and/or interpret representations of solutions that
show the interactions between the solute and solvent. (Sec 11.1)
 LO 2.9 The student is able to create or interpret representations that link the
concept of molarity with particle views of solutions. (Sec 11.2)
 LO 2.14 The student is able to apply Coulomb’s Law qualitatively (including using
representations) to describe the interactions of ions, and the attractions
between ions and solvents to explain the factors that contribute to the solubility
of ionic compounds. (Sec 11.2)
 LO 2.15 The student is able to explain observations regarding the solubility of
ionic solids and molecules in water and other solvents on the basis of particle
views that include intermolecular interactions and entropic effects. (Sec 11.2-
11.3)
AP Learning Objectives
 LO 5.10 The student can support the claim about whether a process is a
chemical or physical change (or may be classified as both) based on whether the
process involves changes in intramolecular versus intermolecular interactions.
(Sec 11.2)
 LO 6.24 The student can analyze the enthalpic and entropic changes associated
with the dissolution of a salt, using particulate level interactions and
representations. (Sec 11.2)
Section 11.1
Solution Composition
AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

 Learning Objectives
 LO 1.16 The student can design and/or interpret the results of an experiment regarding the absorption of light to
determine the concentration of an absorbing species in a solution.
 LO 2.8 The student can draw and/or interpret representations of solutions that show the interactions between the
solute and solvent.
 AP Margin Notes
 Spectral analysis is a common method for analyzing the composition of a solution. See Appendix 3 “Spectral
Analysis” for a discussion of the Beer-Lambert law.
 Additional AP References
 LO 1.16 (see APEC #2, “The Percentage of Copper in Brass”)
Section 11.1
Various Types of Solutions
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Section 11.1
moles of solute
Molarity (M ) =
liters of solution
mass of solute
Mass (weight) percent =  100%
mass of solution
moles A
Mole fraction (  A ) =
total moles of solution
moles of solute
Molality (m ) =
kilogram of solvent
Section 11.1
Molarity
moles of solute
Molarity (M ) =
liters of solution

Section 11.1
EXERCISE!
You have 1.00 mol of sugar in 125.0 mL of solution.
Calculate the concentration in units of molarity.
8.00 M

Section 11.1
EXERCISE!
You have a 10.0 M sugar solution. What volume of
this solution do you need to have 2.00 mol of sugar?
0.200 L

Section 11.1
EXERCISE!
Consider separate solutions of NaOH and KCl

made by dissolving 100.0 g of each solute in 250.0
mL of solution. Calculate the concentration of
each solution in units of molarity.
10.0 M NaOH
5.37 M KCl

Section 11.1
Mass Percent
mass of solute
Mass (weight) percent =  100%
mass of solution

Section 11.1
EXERCISE!
What is the percent-by-mass concentration of

glucose in a solution made my dissolving 5.5 g of
glucose in 78.2 g of water?
6.6%

Section 11.1
Mole Fraction
moles A
Mole fraction (  A ) =
total moles of solution

Section 11.1
EXERCISE!
A solution of phosphoric acid was made by dissolving

8.00 g of H3PO4 in 100.0 mL of water. Calculate the
mole fraction of H3PO4. (Assume water has a density of
1.00 g/mL.)
0.0145

Section 11.1
Molality
moles of solute
Molality ( m ) =
kilogram of solvent

Section 11.1
EXERCISE!
A solution of phosphoric acid was made by dissolving

8.00 g of H3PO4 in 100.0 mL of water. Calculate the
molality of the solution. (Assume water has a density
of 1.00 g/mL.)
0.816 m

Section 11.2
The Energies of Solution Formation

 LO 2.9 The student is able to create or interpret representations that link the concept of molarity with particle
views of solutions.
 LO 2.14 The student is able to apply Coulomb’s Law qualitatively (including using representations) to describe the
interactions of ions, and the attractions between ions and solvents to explain the factors that contribute to the
solubility of ionic compounds.
 LO 2.15 The student is able to explain observations regarding the solubility of ionic solids and molecules in water
and other solvents on the basis of particle views that include intermolecular interactions and entropic effects.
 LO 5.10 The student can support the claim about whether a process is a chemical or physical change (or may be
classified as both) based on whether the process involves changes in intramolecular versus intermolecular
interactions.
 LO 6.24 The student can analyze the enthalpic and entropic changes associated with the dissolution of a salt, using
particulate level interactions and representations.
 Additional AP References
 LO 5.10 (see Appendix 7.6, “Distinguishing between Chemical and Physical Changes at the Molecular Level”)
 LO 6.24 (see Appendix 7.7, “Intermolecular Forces and Thermodynamics: Why Aren’t All Ionic Solids Soluble in
Water?”)
Section 11.2
Formation of a Liquid Solution

1. Separating the solute into its individual components
(expanding the solute).
2. Overcoming intermolecular forces in the solvent to make
room for the solute (expanding the solvent).
3. Allowing the solute and solvent to interact to form the
solution.

Section 11.2
Steps in the Dissolving Process

Section 11.2
Steps in the Dissolving Process

 Steps 1 and 2 require energy, since forces must be
overcome to expand the solute and solvent.
 Step 3 usually releases energy.
 Steps 1 and 2 are endothermic, and step 3 is often
exothermic.

Section 11.2
Enthalpy (Heat) of Solution

 Enthalpy change associated with the formation of the
solution is the sum of the ΔH values for the steps:
ΔHsoln = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3
 ΔHsoln may have a positive sign (energy absorbed) or a

negative sign (energy released).

Section 11.2
Enthalpy (Heat) of Solution

Section 11.2
CONCEPT CHECK!
Explain why water and oil (a long chain hydrocarbon)

do not mix. In your explanation, be sure to address
how ΔH plays a role.

Section 11.2
The Energy Terms for Various Types of Solutes and Solvents

ΔH1 ΔH2 ΔH3 ΔHsoln Outcome
Polar solute, polar solvent Large Large Large, negative Small Solution forms
Nonpolar solute, polar solvent Small Large Small Large, positive No solution
forms
Nonpolar solute, nonpolar Small Small Small Small Solution forms

solvent
Polar solute, nonpolar solvent Large Small Small Large, positive No solution
forms

Section 11.2
In General
 One factor that favors a process is an increase in
probability of the state when the solute and solvent are
mixed.
 Processes that require large amounts of energy tend not
to occur.
 Overall, remember that “like dissolves like”.

Section 11.3
Factors Affecting Solubility

 LO 2.15 The student is able to explain observations regarding the solubility of ionic solids and molecules in water
and other solvents on the basis of particle views that include intermolecular interactions and entropic effects.
Section 11.3
 Structure Effects:
 Polarity
 Pressure Effects:
 Henry’s law
 Temperature Effects:
 Affecting aqueous solutions

Section 11.3
Structure Effects
 Hydrophobic (water fearing)
 Non-polar substances
 Hydrophilic (water loving)
 Polar substances

Section 11.3
Pressure Effects
 Little effect on solubility of solids or liquids
 Henry’s law: C = kP
C = concentration of dissolved gas
k = constant
P = partial pressure of gas solute
above the solution
 Amount of gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas above the solution.

Section 11.3
A Gaseous Solute

Section 11.3
Temperature Effects (for Aqueous Solutions)

 Although the solubility of most solids in water increases
with temperature, the solubilities of some substances
decrease with increasing temperature.
 Predicting temperature dependence of solubility is very
difficult.
 Solubility of a gas in solvent typically decreases with
increasing temperature.

Section 11.3
The Solubilities
of Several Solids
as a Function of
Temperature

Section 11.3
The Solubilities of
Several Gases in Water

Section 11.4
The Vapor Pressures of Solutions
An Aqueous Solution and Pure Water in a Closed Environment

Section 11.4
Liquid/Vapor Equilibrium
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Section 11.4
Vapor Pressure Lowering: Addition of a Solute

Section 11.4
Vapor Pressures of Solutions

 Nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a
solvent.
 Raoult’s Law: P soln =  P 
solv solv
Psoln = observed vapor pressure of


solution

Psolv solv = mole fraction of solvent
= vapor pressure of pure solvent

Section 11.4
A Solution Obeying Raoult’s Law

Section 11.4
Nonideal Solutions
 Liquid-liquid solutions where both components are
volatile.
 Modified Raoult’s Law:
PTotal =  A PA + BPB
 Nonideal solutions behave ideally as the mole fractions

approach 0 and 1.

Section 11.4
Vapor Pressure for a Solution of Two Volatile Liquids

Section 11.4
Summary of the Behavior of Various Types of Solutions

Deviation
Interactive Forces Between
ΔT for Solution from
Solute (A) and Solvent (B) ΔHsoln Example
Formation Raoult’s
Particles
Law
None (ideal Benzene-

A  A, B  B  A  B Zero Zero
solution) toluene
Negative Acetone-
A  A, B  B < A  B Positive Negative
(exothermic) water
Positive Ethanol-
A  A, B  B > A  B Negative Positive
(endothermic) hexane

Section 11.4
CONCEPT CHECK!
For each of the following solutions, would you expect it

to be relatively ideal (with respect to Raoult’s Law),
show a positive deviation, or show a negative deviation?
a) Hexane (C6H14) and chloroform (CHCl3)
b) Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) and water
c) Hexane (C6H14) and octane (C8H18)

Section 11.5
Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point
Depression
Colligative Properties
 Depend only on the number, not on the identity, of the
solute particles in an ideal solution:
 Boiling-point elevation
 Freezing-point depression
 Osmotic pressure

Section 11.5
Depression
Boiling-Point Elevation
 Nonvolatile solute elevates the boiling point of the
solvent.
 ΔT = Kbmsolute
ΔT = boiling-point elevation
Kb = molal boiling-point elevation constant
msolute = molality of solute

Section 11.5
Depression
Boiling Point Elevation: Liquid/Vapor Equilibrium

Section 11.5
Depression
Boiling Point Elevation: Addition of a Solute

Section 11.5
Depression
Boiling Point Elevation: Solution/Vapor Equilibrium

Section 11.5
Depression
Freezing-Point Depression
 When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, the freezing
point of the solution is lower than that of the pure
solvent.
 ΔT = Kfmsolute
ΔT = freezing-point depression
Kf = molal freezing-point depression constant
msolute = molality of solute

Section 11.5
Depression
Freezing Point Depression: Solid/Liquid Equilibrium

Section 11.5
Depression
Freezing Point Depression: Addition of a Solute

Section 11.5
Depression
Freezing Point Depression: Solid/Solution Equilibrium

Section 11.5
Depression
Changes in Boiling Point and Freezing Point of Water

Section 11.5
Depression
EXERCISE!
A solution was prepared by dissolving 25.00 g of

glucose in 200.0 g water. The molar mass of
glucose is 180.16 g/mol. What is the boiling point
of the resulting solution (in °C)? Glucose is a
molecular solid that is present as individual
molecules in solution.
100.35 °C

Section 11.5
Depression
EXERCISE!
You take 20.0 g of a sucrose (C12H22O11) and NaCl mixture

and dissolve it in 1.0 L of water. The freezing point of
this solution is found to be -0.426°C. Assuming ideal
behavior, calculate the mass percent composition of the
original mixture, and the mole fraction of sucrose in the
original mixture.
72.8% sucrose and 27.2% sodium chloride;

mole fraction of the sucrose is 0.313
Section 11.5
Depression
EXERCISE!
A plant cell has a natural concentration of

0.25 m. You immerse it in an aqueous solution with a
freezing point of –0.246°C. Will the
cell explode, shrivel, or do nothing?

Section 11.6
Osmotic Pressure
 Osmosis – flow of solvent into the solution through a

semipermeable membrane.
  = MRT
 = osmotic pressure (atm)
M = molarity of the solution
R = gas law constant
T = temperature (Kelvin)

Section 11.6
Osmotic Pressure

Section 11.6
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis

Section 11.6
Osmotic Pressure

Section 11.6
Osmotic Pressure
EXERCISE!
When 33.4 mg of a compound is dissolved in

10.0 mL of water at 25°C, the solution has an
osmotic pressure of 558 torr. Calculate the
molar mass of this compound.
111 g/mol

Section 11.7
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions
van’t Hoff Factor, i

 The relationship between the moles of solute dissolved
and the moles of particles in solution is usually
expressed as:
moles of particles in solution
i =
moles of solute dissolved

Section 11.7
Ion Pairing
 At a given instant a small percentage of the sodium and
chloride ions are paired and thus count as a single
particle.

Section 11.7
Examples
 The expected value for i can be determined for a salt by
noting the number of ions per formula unit (assuming
complete dissociation and that ion pairing does not
occur).
 NaCl i=2
 KNO3 i=2
 Na3PO4 i=4

Section 11.7
Ion Pairing
 Ion pairing is most important in concentrated solutions.
 As the solution becomes more dilute, the ions are
farther apart and less ion pairing occurs.
 Ion pairing occurs to some extent in all electrolyte
solutions.
 Ion pairing is most important for highly charged ions.

Section 11.7
Modified Equations
T = imK
 = iMRT

Section 11.8
Colloids
 A suspension of tiny particles in some medium.

 Tyndall effect – scattering of light by particles.
 Suspended particles are single large molecules or
aggregates of molecules or ions ranging in size from 1 to
1000 nm.

Section 11.8
Colloids
Types of Colloids

Section 11.8
Colloids
Coagulation
 Destruction of a colloid.
 Usually accomplished either by heating or by adding an
electrolyte.

AP PPT CH 11

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AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Various Types of Solutions

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 5

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 8

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Consider separate solutions of NaOH and KCl

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 11

What is the percent-by-mass concentration of

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 12

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

A solution of phosphoric acid was made by dissolving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15

A solution of phosphoric acid was made by dissolving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 16

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Formation of a Liquid Solution

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Steps in the Dissolving Process

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Steps in the Dissolving Process

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Enthalpy (Heat) of Solution

 ΔHsoln may have a positive sign (energy absorbed) or a

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 21

Enthalpy (Heat) of Solution

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 22

Explain why water and oil (a long chain hydrocarbon)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 23

The Energy Terms for Various Types of Solutes and Solvents

Nonpolar solute, nonpolar Small Small Small Small Solution forms

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 24

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 25

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27

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Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 30

Temperature Effects (for Aqueous Solutions)

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An Aqueous Solution and Pure Water in a Closed Environment

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To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode

Vapor Pressure Lowering: Addition of a Solute

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Vapor Pressures of Solutions

Psoln = observed vapor pressure of

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 37

A Solution Obeying Raoult’s Law

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PTotal =  A PA + BPB

 Nonideal solutions behave ideally as the mole fractions

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 39

Vapor Pressure for a Solution of Two Volatile Liquids

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 40

Summary of the Behavior of Various Types of Solutions

None (ideal Benzene-