Foundation Treatment Lecture

Foundation Investigation
and Treatment
Deputy Director, Embankment Dam (NW&S)
Central Water Commission
Foundation Investigation ?
Knowledge of bedding orientation of fracture planes
and other relevant foundation information is therefore,
essential for design of the dam.
A geological investigation is required to

determine the general suitability of the site for the
construction of the dam and the identify the types and
structure of the foundation materials.
2
Terminology
Some Terminology…
Bedding Plane (or Stratification)
The surface that separates each successive layer of a

stratified rock from its preceeding layer (or bedding) that differ
in rock type or other characteristics from the material with which
they are interstratified (sometimes stated as interbedded, or
interlayered).
: a depositional plane
: a plane of stratification
4
Some Terminology…
5
Some Terminology…
6
Some Terminology…
Foliation Plane
Planar arrangement of structural or textural features in
any rock type, but particularly that resulting from the alignment
of constituent mineral grains of a metamorphic rock of the
regional variety along straight or wavy planes.
Foliation often occurs parallel to original bedding, but it

may not be ostensibly related to any other structural direction.
Foliation is exhibited most prominently by sheety

minerals, such as mica or chlorite.
7
Some Terminology…
Foliated rocks at dam site
8
Some Terminology…
Fault
A fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume
of rock, across which there has been significant displacement
along the fractures as a result of earth movement.
When rocks slip past each other in faulting, the upper or
overlying block along the fault plane is called the hanging
wall, or headwall; the block below is called the footwall.
The fault strike is the direction of the line of intersection
between the fault plane and the surface of the Earth.
The dip of a fault plane is its angle of inclination measured
from the horizontal.
9
Some Terminology…
Jointed Faulted Rock at Dam site
10
Some Terminology…
Normal Fault
11
Some Terminology…
Reverse Fault
12
Some Terminology…
Thrust Fault
Thrust faults is a low-angle (dip angle) reverse fault.
13
Some Terminology…
Shear Zone
A shear zone is zone along which blocks of rock have been
displaced in a fault-like manner but without prominent
development of a visible fault.
It is a zone of strong deformation (with a high strain rate)
surrounded by rocks with a lower state of finite strain. It is
characterised by a length to width ratio of more than 5:1 .
Shear zones are important in rock engineering because they
posses the prerequisites for a weak layer : continuity over a
large area, and a zone of very low strength, i.e., essentially
zero cohesion and low angle of friction.
14
Some Terminology…
Shear Zone
15
Some Terminology…
Shear Zone
Shear zones can occur in the following geotectonic settings:

transcurrent setting – steep to vertical:
• strike-slip zones.
• transform faults.
compressive setting — low-angle
• recumbent fold nappes (at the base of).
• subduction zones.
• thrust sheets (at the base of).
extensional setting — low-angle
• metamorphic core complex detachments.
16
Some Terminology…
Shear Zone
Margin of a large dextral sense shear zone with near horizontal

lineation and steep dip to northeast.
Near Cala Portixol, Cap de Creus area, Catalunya.
17
Some Terminology…
Shear Zone
The sense of shear in a shear zone (dextral, sinistral, reverse or normal)
can be deduced by macroscopic structures and by a plethora of
microtectonic indicators.
The main macroscopic indicators are striations (slickensides),

slickenfibers, and stretching or mineral lineations. They indicate the
direction of movement. With the aid of offset markers such as displaced
layering and dykes, or the deflection (bending) of layering/foliation into a
shear zone, one can additionally determine the sense of shear.
En echelon tension gash arrays (or extensional veins), characteristic of

ductile-brittle shear zones, and sheath folds can also be valuable
macroscopic shear-sense indicators.
18
FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION
INVESTIGATION REQUIRED
To judge the overall permeability in order to enable a
preliminary assessment to be made of the degree of
impermeabilization desired and the feasibility of achieving
the same.
To explore the local variation in the grain size distribution
and permeability in order to ascertain the groutability of the
various strata and the extent of ungroutable layers.
To investigate salt content of the soil as well as ground
water to identify presence of salts which may inhibit
gellation.
20
Investigation …
Parameters should be Determined:
For each material the shear strengths of the intact portions, the sliding
friction strengths of discontinuities, and the shear strength at each
interface with a different material (including the strength at the
interface of concrete and the material exposed at the complete
excavated surface).
The Permeability of each material .
The deformation modulus of the foundation. Accurate knowledge of

the modulus of deformation of the foundation is required to determine
the stress concentration in the dam or foundation due to local low-
modulus region adjacent to or below the dam, and to determine the
stress distribution to be used in detailed stability analysis.
21
Investigation …
Investigations data are Used for: 1/2
Depth of Bedrock surface below the unconsolidated surface

cover.
Lithology of bedrock units including identification of depths,
location, and other features such as bedding planes, foliation
and schistosity in anisotropic rocks, and flow structures in
igneous rocks, etc.
Location, Intensity, and lateral and vertical Extent of
weathered or otherwise altered rocks.
Location, lateral and vertical Extent, Orientation and Spacing
of fractures including faults and joints surfaces.
22
Investigation …
Investigations data are Used for: 2/2
Location of and estimation of potential seepage through zones of

primary or secondary permeability by water testing. Particular care
should be exercised in investigations in foundations that contain brittle,
fractured rocks and/or soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite and
gypsum.
Geological logs from appropriate borehole probing instruments.
Investigation may include estimation of strength as expressed by
measured elastic constants by borehole deformation test.
Estimation and measurement of engineering properties by utilizing drill
cores, such as density, perme3ability, effects of water saturation, shear
strength, stress-strain characteristic, and response to structural loading.
23
RROCK MASS
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION OF IN-SITU ROCK
FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSE
Five ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS have been
given in ICOLD Bulletin on Rock Foundation for Dams
(1993) based on:
Weathering Conditions
Layer Thickness
Discontinuity intercepts
Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Rock
Frication angle of the Discontinuities
25
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION …
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) :
The Rock Quality Designation index (RQD) was developed
by Deere (Deere et al 1967) to provide a quantitative estimate
of rock mass quality from drill core logs.
RQD is defined as the percentage of intact core pieces longer

than 100 mm (4 inches) in the total length of core.
The core should be at least NW size (54.7 mm or 2.15 inches

in diameter) and should be drilled with a double-tube core
barrel.
26
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
27
Relation of RQD and Rock Quality :
Rock Quality Designation Description of Rock Quality

(%)
0-25 Very Poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Fair
75-90 Good
90-100 Excellent
28
Rock Structure Rating (RSR) :
Wickham et al (1972) described a quantitative method for
describing the quality of a rock mass and for selecting
appropriate support on the basis of their Rock Structure
Rating (RSR) classification.
This system was the first to make reference to shotcrete

support.
RSR system demonstrates the logic involved in developing a

quasi-quantitative rock mass classification system.
29
The significance of the RSR system, is that it introduced the
concept of rating each of the components listed below to arrive at
a numerical value of
RSR = A + B + C.
1. Parameter A, Geology: General appraisal of geological

structure on the basis of:
a. Rock type origin (igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary).
b. Rock hardness (hard, medium, soft, decomposed).
c. Geologic structure (massive, slightly faulted/folded,

moderately faulted/folded, intensely faulted/folded).
30
2. Parameter B, Geometry: Effect of discontinuity pattern with
respect to the direction of the tunnel drive on the basis of:
a. Joint spacing.
b. Joint orientation (strike and dip).
c. Direction of tunnel drive.
3. Parameter C: Effect of groundwater inflow and joint
condition on the basis of:
a. Overall rock mass quality on the basis of A and B combined.
b. Joint condition (good, fair, poor).
c. Amount of water inflow (in gallons per minute per 1000 feet
of tunnel).
Note: RSR classification Imperial units have been retained three tables from
Wickham et al's 1972 paper are reproduced in Tables 1, 2 and 3 .
31
RSR : Parameter A : General Area Geology
32
RSR : Parameter B : Joint Pattern, Direction of
drive
33
RSR : Parameter C : Groundwater, Joint
Condition
34
Geomechanics Classification or
Rock Mass Rating (RMR) :
Bieniawski (1976) published the details of a rock mass
classification called the Geomechanics Classification or the
Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system.
The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass
using the RMR system:
1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.
2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
3. Spacing of discontinuities.
4. Condition of discontinuities.
5. Groundwater conditions.
6. Orientation of discontinuities.
35
Rock Mass Rating (After Bieniawski 1989) : 1/3
36
37
* Some conditions are mutually exclusive . For example, if infilling is present, the roughness of
the surface will be overshadowed by the influence of the gouge. In such cases use A.4 directly.
** Modified after Wickham et al (1972).
38
Seismic Refraction Techniques
Seismic Refraction utilizes measurement of time delay

between the generation of seismic waves and the
subsequent detection of their first arrivals at a distance form
the wave source.
Seismic Refraction Technique yields only a zoning of

depth in terms of longitudinal (compressional or P-wave)
velocities and with proper pattern of profiles, the basic
information on a completely unexplored site without drill
holes or adits can be obtained within space of a few days and
at minimum cost.
39
Seismic Refraction Techniques
Velocity Index and Rock-Mass Quality Seismic Refraction Techniques
Rock Mass Quality
0.2 Very Poor

0.2 to 0.4 Poor
0.4 to 0.6 Fair
0.6 to 0.8 Good
0.8 to 1.0 Very Good
40
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
FOUNDATION MATERIAL PROPERTIES
There are three foundation material properties which must

be accurately determined:
Compressive Strength
Shearing Strength and
Deformation Modulus
42
Compressive Strengths of Rocks

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to
withstand axially directed compressive forces.
The most common measure of compressive strength is the

uniaxial compressive strength or unconfined compressive
strength.
Usually compressive strength of rock is defined by the

ultimate stress.
It is one of the most important mechanical properties of rock

material, used in design, analysis and modelling.
43
TESTING OF IN-SITU ROCK

Destructive strength tests:
– Uniaxial compressive strength
– Young modulus
– Poisson’s ratio
Triaxial test
– Young modulus
– Poisson’s ratio
– Shear strength (cohesion, angle of friction)
Point load test
Indirect tensile strength test (brazilian test, beam test)
Direct shear strength test
44
TESTING OF IN-SITU ROCK

Non-destructive strength tests:
• Schmidt hammer
– surface strength, estimation of strength
• US wave propagation
– detetecting of microcracks inside the specimen
– estimation of strength
Other tests:
• Density properties, porosity
• Water content, water absorption
• Leaking test
– Water
45
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS OF ROCKS
46
47
48
Range of Compressive Strengths of different
Rocks
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50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Shearing Strengths
Shear strength is used to describe the strength of rock
materials, to resist deformation due to shear stress.
Rock resists shear stress by two internal mechanisms,
cohesion and internal friction.
Cohesion is a measure of internal bonding of the rock
material.
Internal friction is caused by contact between particles, and
is defined by the internal friction angle, φ.
Different rocks have different cohesions and different
friction angles.
57
Shear Strengths of Rocks

The shear stress will increase rapidly until the peak strength is
reached.
This corresponds to the sum of the strength of the cementing material

bonding the two halves of the bedding plane together and the
frictional resistance of the matching surfaces.
As the displacement continues, the shear stress will fall to some

residual value that will then remain constant, even for large shear
displacements.
In a shear test each specimen is subjected to a stress Vn normal to the

bedding plane, and the shear stress W, required to cause a displacement
G, is measured.
58
Shear Strengths test of in-Situ Rock Discontinuities
59
Shear Strengths of Rock Discontinuities
60
Deformation Modulus
Deformability is characterized by a modulus describing
the relationship between the applied load and the
resulting strain.
The fact that jointed rock masses do not behave
elastically has prompted the usage of the term modulus of
deformation rather than modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus.
Clerici (1993) concluded that "when the value of the
modulus of deformation is determined, even by direct
measurement, the aim cannot be to define an absolute
value, but rather to define a magnitude for the modulus".
61
Three types of in-situ tests are mostly used to determine the
modulus of deformation:
1. Plate jacking tests (PJT) :

Two areas diametrically opposite in the test adit are
loaded simultaneously, for example using flat jacks
positioned across the test drift and the rock displacements
are measured in boreholes behind each loaded area.
2. Plate loading tests (PLT) :

While the PJT records the displacements in drill
holes beyond the loading assembly of flat jacks, the PLT
measures the displacements at the loading surface of the
rock.
62
Deformation Modulus
3. Radial jacking tests (Goodman jack test) :
The Goodman jack consists of two curved rigid bearing
plates of angular width 90o which can be forced apart inside an
NX size bore hole by a number of pistons.
Two transducers mounted at either end of the 20 cm long
bearing plates measure the displacement.
In addition to these three types the following in situ
deformation tests can be used:
− flat jack tests;
− cable jacking tests;
− radial jack tests;
− dilatometer tests;
− pressure chamber.
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Deformation Modulus
UNDATION MATERIAL PROPERTIES
64
Other Engineering Properties of Rock Mass

Point Load Strength Index
Point load test gives the standard point load index, Is(50),
calculated from the point load at failure and the size of the
specimen, with size correction to an equivalent core diameter
of 50 mm.
Fracture Toughness
Fracture toughness of rock materials measures the
effectiveness of rock fracturing. It is typically measured by a
toughness test. There are three fracture mode: (Mode I), (Mode
II) (Mode III), correspondingly, there are three fracture
toughness, KIC, KIIC and KIIIC.
65
Other Engineering Properties of Rock Mass

Brittleness
Brittleness can be expressed by several ways.
Indentation
Swelling
Swelling is governed by the amount of swelling
montmorillonite clay minerals in the rock material. Rock swelling
is measured in confined and unconfined conditions. Unconfined
swelling is measured by the percentage increase of length in three
perpendicular directions, when a rock specimen is placed in water.
Confined swelling index measures swelling in one direction while
deformations in other two directions are constrained.
66
DESIGN & ANALYASIS
STRUCTURE STABILITY
Stability analyses should be conducted to verify that the
structure, or component thereof, is stable relative to a
failure plane located at the structure-foundation interface,
and the structure foundation is stable relative to a deep
seated failure surface.
Structure stability is usually assessed in terms of the factor

of safety, which is the ratio of the resisting (stabilizing)
forces to the driving (destabilizing) forces under specified
loads.
68
STRUCTURE STABILITY…
DESIGN REQUIREMENT FOR STABILITY
The design should satisfy the hollowing requirements of
stability:
1. The dam shall be safe against sliding on any plane or
combination of planes with in the dam, at the foundation
or within the foundation;
2. The dam shall be safe against overturning at any plane
within the dam, at the base, or at any plane below the
base; and
3. The safe unit stresses in the concrete or masonry of the
dam or in the foundation material shall not be exceeded.
69
REQUIREMENT OF STABILITY
Following are the modes of failure of a gravity dam:
1. Overturning
2. Sliding
3. Compression or Crushing
4. Tension
For consideration of stability following assumptions are made:
1. That the dam is composed of individual transverse vertical
elements each of which carries its load to the foundation
without transfer of load from or to adjacent elements.
And
2. That the vertical stress varies linearly from upstream face to
downstream face on any horizontal section. 70
GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETER
Geotechnical parameters normally required to conduct
stability analyses of structures include:
• Unit weight of foundation and backfill materials.

• Friction angles and cohesion for soil.
• Bedrock friction angles and dip.
• Friction angle at the concrete-soil or concrete-
bedrock interface.
• Lateral earth pressure coefficients.
• Groundwater conditions.
• Seismic coefficients.
71
STABILITY OF FOUNDATION AGAINST SLIDING
Sliding along the structure-foundation interface is ordinarily
assessed using the friction factor method with cohesion
neglected.
The factor of safety against sliding is defined as the ratio of
resisting forces to driving forces and, for a horizontal
sliding plane, is expressed as follows:
72
SLIDING STABILITY - Factors of Safety for Various Conditions of Loading
73
CHECK FOR SLIDING STABILITY
In the foundation, the horizontal shear is comparatively

small and possibility of sliding is generally negligible.
However, resistance to sliding is evaluated assuming that
passive earth pressure conditions are developed on vertical
projections above the toe of foundations.
The friction between bottom of the footing and soil also
resist the sliding of footing and can be considered in the
stability of foundation against sliding.
However, the frictional force is directly proportional to
vertical downward load and as such may not exist under
uplift condition.
74
CHECK FOR SLIDING STABILITY
For cohesive soil the following formula can be applied for
calculating the passive pressure to resist sliding.
*For stability of foundation against sliding. Factor of safety

shall not be less than 1.5(DL + LL + WL) (IS: 1904-1986)
75
MEASURES TAKEN TO IMPROVE SLIDING STABILITY
Roughening of Base
Provision of Shear Keys
Upstream Sloping of Dam Base
Use of Anchors
Use of Mat Foundation
Other Measures
• Providing Buttress Structure
• Struts Bearing Against Sound Rock on the D/S
• Adopting Slightly Arched Alignment of Dam
• Combining blocks resisting on weaker rocks with
adjacent resisting on stronger rocks. 76
Roughening of Base
 To improve sliding resistance of the dam, proper bond
between the dam base and the foundation rock surface should
be ensured.
 This can be done by roughening the rock surface by
providing corrugations so as to improve the frictional
resistance along the contact surface.
 This should be done as a part of shaping of foundation.
77
Provision of Shear Keys
 Shear keys are of two types: One
placed below the heel of the dam and
the Other within the foundation
across seams of soft material, also
known as Shear Plug.
 The shear key below the heel of the
dam is provided for keying the Dam
some distance into foundation rock.
This leads to improvement in the
shearing resistance through
mobilisation of passive resistance of
the adjacent rock on the downstream.
78
FOUNDATION TREATMENT
Foundation Treatment ?
To Foundation treatment is the controlled
alteration of the state, nature or mass behaviour
of ground materials in order to achieve an
intended satisfactory response to existing or
projected environmental and engineering
actions.
Mitchell, J M and Jardine, F M (2002)

‘A Guide to ground treatment’
CIRIA
80
Why Foundation Treatment ?
To increase bearing capacity and stability
(avoid failure)
To reduce post construction settlements foundation
and thus the overall settlement of the top of the dam
To reduce liquefaction risk( seismic area)
To reduce leakage through the dam foundation
To reduce seepage erosion potential
To reduce uplift pressure under concrete gravity dams
in conjunction with drain holes
81
Main Improvement Techniques
Temporary
e.g. dewatering or ground freezing, where the improvement is
only during the application.
Short-term
e.g. some forms of grouting, or use of diaphragm walls for ease
of construction with longer term benefits.
Long-term
e.g. soil nailing, vibro-replacement, curtain grouting of a dam,
where the treatment is integral to the permanent works.
82
Effect on the Ground
Change of state;
i.e. the same ground but made stronger, stiffer, denser, more
durable.
Change of nature;
i.e. the ground becomes a different material by inclusion of
other materials.
Change of response;
i.e. through the incorporation of other materials, the ground
becomes a composite material with enhanced load-carrying or
deformation characteristics.
83
Various steps involved in
Improvement of Foundation
Foundation Treatment
Preparatory works, Excavation,

Surface treatment
Strengthening Measures
Sealing Measures Drainage Measures
(Curtain Grouting / (Consolidation Grouting/
(Drainage holes/ Filters) dental
Cut Offs/ Core etc.)
treatment/Stabilization
84
Preparatory Works
Clearing: Removal, transport & disposal trees, vegetation,
structures and other obstructions.
Grubbing: Digging up of roots, buried logs and other

materials embedded in top soil
Stripping: Removal of humus & organic top soil
River Diversion: Removal of water from the dam site /

within cofferdam to facilitate excavation and foundation
treatment.
85
ABUTMENT CONTACT
Attention must be paid on the abutments to any irregularities in
the cleansed rock surface and to cracks and fissures in the rock.
It is important to attain a good seal at the core rock contact by
adequate compaction.
Core abutment contact be suitably shaped and prepared.
Vertical contact faces are tolerable that the benches between
them result in an avg. slope comparable to the overall slope of
the adjacent areas.
A sloping core contact is provided.
Sloping face contact facilitates machine compaction of the core
material in contact.
86
Core – Abutment Contact
Typical details
87
Foundation Treatment Techniques
88
Parameters for Concept
 Soil Characteristics  Site Environment
 Cohesive or non-cohesive  Close to existing
 Blocks structure
 Water content  Height constraints
 water table position
 Organic materials  Time available to build
 Soil thickness
 Structure to support
 Isolated or uniform load
 Deformability
89
Main Improvement Techniques:
• by vibration
• by adding load
• by structural reinforcement
• by structural fill
• by admixtures
• by grouting
• by specialist dewatering
90
CRITERIA & GROUTING
TECHNIQUES
Purpose of Grouting
 Reduce leakage through the dam foundation
 Reduce seepage erosion potential
 Reduce uplift pressure under concrete gravity dams
in conjunction with drain holes
 Strengthen the Dam foundation

 Reduce settlements in the foundation and thus the
overall settlement of the top of the dam
92
PERMEABILITY TESTS IN-SITU
The in-situ permeability is governed by the size, extent and

spacing of layers of high permeability zone.
This is conducted by constant mead method in accordance

with IS 5529 (Part-I) :1985.
The average permeability of pervious deposits may be

determined by pumping out test in accordance with IS 5529
(Part-I):1985.
93
PERMEABILITY TESTS IN-SITU
Use of post grouting pumping tests for evaluation of the
efficacy of grout curtains is subject to considerable
uncertainty when the curtain is only 5 to 10 m wide. This is
because of the irregularity of the curtain and the
94
GROUTING OF PERVIOUS SOIL
These are applicable where the primary purpose of grouting is
to reduce the permeability of the soil. In such cases consolidation
of the soil is the primary objective.
The seepage through a pervious stratum is generally governed by
the presence of a few pockets or layers of high permeability.
It is necessary to treat only such layers to achieve the necessary
reduction of permeability.
It is judge not merely in terms of the grain sige distribution of
each individual layer or lense but in terms of its contribution to
the over permeability.
95
GROUTING METHODS & THEIR SELECTION
Pervious soils are generally heterogeneous, and the grain size

distribution may change abruptly over a short distance.
The grout flow generally concentrates along layers or

pockets of coarser and relatively pervious soils.
Hence, it is necessary to treat short lengths of grout holes at a

time and repeat injections to ensure that the least pervious and
fine grained soils are treated thoroughly.
96
GROUTING METHODS & THEIR SELECTION
Cont…
The method of grouting selected should, therefore, satisfy the
following requirements:
A. Soils of different characteristics should be treated

individually.
B. It should be possible to treat short sections of the

bore-holes in any desired sequence and repeat the
injection, if required.
C. Leakage along the boreholes shall be prevented.
97
The limiting Lugeon value given in the table, are recommended
for deciding the necessity or otherwise of grouting. Lugeon
values in excess of those given in the table would indicate that
grouting is desirable.
(Adopted from clause 3.3.1 of IS 6066:1994)

98
Function of Grouting
Permeation Compaction Hydrofracturing

99
Possibilities of infilling of grout in
Rock joints / Void space
100
Classification of Grouting
Foundation grouting can be classified into two types:
• Curtain grouting
• Consolidation grouting
101
Curtain grouting
Curtain grouting is designed to create a thin barrier (or
curtain) through an area of high permeability.
It consists of a single row of holes (3 to 5 rows in very

permeable foundations) drilled and grouted to the base of
permeable rock.
It safeguards the foundation against erodability hazard.
102
Typical Profile of Curtain grouting
103
Consolidation Grouting
Consolidation grouting is designed to give intensive
grouting of the upper layer of more fractured rock, in the
vicinity of the dam core, or in regions of 'high' hydraulic
seepage gradient.
Under the plinth for a concrete face rock fill dam It is

usually restricted to the upper 5 to 15 m While carried out
in sequence, consolidation grouting is commonly applied
to a predetermined hole spacing.
104
Consolidation Grouting Pattern
105
Classification of Grout Materials
Three basic types of grout are differentiated according to
composition:
Suspensions : Small particles of solids are distributed in a
liquid dispersion medium
Examples: cement and clay in water.
Emulsions : A two-phase system containing minute

(colloidal) droplets or liquid in a disperse phase.
Examples : bitumen and water.
106
Classification of Grout Materials
Solutions : Liquid homogenous molecular mixtures of two
or more substances.
Examples: Sodium silicate, organic resins, and a wide
variety of other so called chemical grouts.
A difference may be made between Tiolloidal solutions{ e.g.

silica or lignochrome gels) and pure solutions (e.g. phenolic and
acrylic resins, aminoplasts).
*A cement grout is not commonly classified as a chemical

grout; it is usually classified as a suspension grout.
107
Limits of Groutability
Limits of Groutability
(based on Karol 1985)
108
Cement grouts used mostly

Mostly grouting is done using cement grout.
 Portland cement mixed with water in a high speed mixer to a
water cement of between 0.5 and 5 at which condition it is a
slurry, readily pumpable and able to penetrate
fractures in rock.
 For soil foundations or when rock fractures are very
narrow, chemicals are used, which are more expensive.
109
Depth of Grout holes
According to IS: 11293 (Part 1)-1985 “Guidelines for the
design of grout curtains”, the following empirical criteria
may be used as a guide:
 D= H/3 to H
 Where D is the depth of the grout curtain in meters

and H is the height of the reservoir water in meters.
 The grout holes may be either vertical or inclined.

110
111
Orientation of Grout holes
The orientation, plan and inclination of grout holes depend
upon the type of joints and the other discontinuities in the
foundation rock.
The most common practice is to drill holes inclined towards

the upstream at 5 to 10 degrees to the vertical.
Apart from the gallery at the foundation level, there could be

other galleries also.
112
Sequence of Grouting Operations
The holes are drilled and grouted in sequence to allow testing
of the permeability before grouting and allow a check on
effectiveness of the grout take by the foundation.
Primary holes are drilled first, followed by secondary and

then tertiary.
The final hole spacing will commonly be 1.5 or 3, but may

be as close as 0.5 m. This staged approach allows control
over grouting operations.
113
Staging of grouting
Downstage without Packer
Downstage with Packer
Upstage
Full Depth
114
Downstage without Packer
One of the preferred methods.
Reduces the risk of leakage of grout to the top stage,

allowing progressive assessment as to whether the hole has
reached the desired closure requirement.
Allows higher pressures to be used for lower stages, giving

better penetration.
Expensive, as drilling required every time.
115
116
Downstage with Packer
Problem of seating, leakage past the packer.
Bleeding water cannot be removed as in the first case.
Ewert prefers this method as the potential to fracture the

rock in the upper levels if packers are not used.
Expensive because each time drilling is required.
117
118
Upstage
Full depth is drilled in one go and grouting is done in stages
using packers.
Does not allow progressive assessment of the depth of grout

hole needed to reach closure.
Cheaper, as the drilling rig is set only once, but savings may
be offset by the need for more conservative total depths.
Appropriate for secondary and tertiary holes.
Bleeding water cannot be removed. 119

120
Full Depth
Full depth of the hole is drilled in one go.
The hole is washed and grouted.
Does not allow proper assessment of where grout take is

occurring or reduction in Lugeon value is taking place.
Grouting pressures are limited.
It is not an acceptable method except for consolidation grout

holes
121
122
Lugeon Test
Decision to install grout curtain depends largely on the results of WPT
Tests not in harmony with grout takes, small quantity of water, large
cement take
Impossible to reduce permeability even though originally permeable

& large takes
Very little seepage though originally high permeability but grout takes
were low
No proportional head reduction despite high take
123
Permeability of joints depends on the
Orientation of joints
124
Different Conditions
125
Water Pressure Test
Tests may be conducted in cycles 1 to 5
Corrections in pressure are required to take care of elevations and

inclinations
Groundwater back pressure, skin friction
Natural permeability needs only one cycle
Pressure may be 0.1 or 0.2 MPa in the first cycle
Results are plotted in two ways
126
WPT contd…
127
Pattern of WPT
128
Interpretation
129
Flow vs. Orientation
130
Flow vs. Orientation Contd.
131
Geologic Structures
132
Conclusions
 Consider, if grouting is really required.
 Take the geological structures and their orientation into
account.
 Design Grout Mix appropriately.
 Limited utility of Water Pressure Test.
 Review the Acceptance criterion.
 Consider chemical grouting in special cases.
133
PARTIAL & POSITIVE CUT-OFF
Functions & Design Requirements
of Cut-off:
Functions & of Cut-off:
To reduce loss of stored water through foundations and

abutments.
To prevent subsurface erosion by piping.
135
of Cut-off:
The type of cut-off should be decided on the basis of

detailed geological investigations.
It is desirable to provide a positive cut-off. Where this is

not possible, partial cut-off with or without upstream
impervious blanket may be provided.
Cut-off may be in the form of trench, sheet piling, cement

bound curtain, diaphragm of bentonite, concrete or other
impervious materials.
136
of Cut-off: Cont…
The alignment of the cut-off should be fixed in such a way

that it’s central line should be within the base of the
impervious core.
In case of positive cut-off, it should be keyed at least to a

depth of 600 mm into continuous impervious sub-stratum/
Rock.
The partial cut-off is specially suited for horizontally

stratified foundations with relatively more pervious layer
near top.
137
of Cut-off: Cont…
The depth of the partial cut-off in deep pervious alluvium

will be governed by:
 Permeability of substrata
 Relative economics of depth of excavation

governed usually by cost of dewatering versus
length of upstream impervious blanket.
138
IMPERVIOUS BLANKET
The horizontal upstream impervious blanket is provided to
increase the path of seepage when full cut-off is not practicable
on pervious foundations.
Impervious blanket shall be connected to core of the dam.
The material used for impervious blanket should have far
less permeability than the foundation soil.
To avoid formation of cracks, the material should not be
highly plastic.
Reference may be made to IS: 1498 for suitability of soils for
blanket.
139
IMPERVIOUS BLANKET (Cont…)
A 300 mm thick layer of random material over the blanket is

recommended to prevent cracking due to exposure to
atmosphere.
Impervious blanket with a minimum thickness of 1.0 m and a

minimum length of 5 times the maximum water head may be
provided.
140
RELIEF WELLS
To ensure safety of the earth dam in cases where the cut-off is
partial or reliance is placed on an upstream blanket for
controlling under seepage.
This may be effectively done by installing a system of relief

wells suitably spaced which will reduce the intensity of the
under seepage pressure and render the seepage water
practically.
A relief well is a small drainage well (45 to 90 cm in dia)

near about the downstream toe, with a pipe having narrow
slots, placed in the centre and surrounded by graded filter.
141
142
143
144
METHODS OF TREATMENT OF DIFFERENT
FOUNDATION MATERIAL-OVERBURDEN &
ROCK (IS 4999 :1991 & IS 6066 :1994)
DAMS ON
SHALLOW PERVIOUS FOUNDATIONS
M -IMPERVIOUS P -PERVIOUS
SP -SEMI-PERVIOUS SM -SEMI-IMPERVIOUS
R -RANDOM, INCLUDING SP OR SM
146
DAMS ON
147
DAMS ON
148
DEEP PERVIOUS FOUNDATIONS
WITH IMPERVIOUS TOP STRATUM
149
150
151
152
Description of Grouting Methods
The following methods are generally followed for grouting of
overburden soils:
Rising Tube
In this method, grouting is done through the casing which
is driven to the bottom of the hole.
The tube is withdrawn a short distance and grout is
injected through the open end into the cavity left by the
tube as it is raised.
In this manner the tube is lifted progressively until the
entire depth required to be grouted is treated.
153
Cont…
154
Cont…
Descending Stage
In this method, grouting is done through the lower open

end of the grout pipe in short stages of 1 to 2 metres
starting with the top of the grouted zone.
The process involves repetition of a sequence of

operations comprising drilling through the length of
each stage and grouting followed by redrilling.
155
Grouting by Descending Stage
156
Cont…
Grouting Through Tubes with Sleeves
In this system of grouting, a pipe, with rubber sleeves
fitted at 30 cm intervals, is installed in the borehole by
filling the annular space around the tube by a sheath of
clay cement grout.
Grouting is done by seating a set of double packers

opposite the sleeves which open under pressure. The
sheath grout is cracked under pressure every time
injections are made.
157
Grouting Through Tubes with Sleeves
158
Grouting in Rock
CHOICE OF GROUTING MATERIALS & MIXTURES
Particle size ( in suspension ) should be small enough, so

that the grout can penetrate the soil easily.
The viscosity of the grout mix should be sufficiently low so
that the mix canStravel sufficient distance in the soil to
achieve an economical and practicable spacing of holes.
After penetration into the soil, the grout should form a
deposit which will not be eroded by the pressure gradient
imposed on the curtain over the entire serviceable life of the
structure.
159
Grouting in Rock
BLANKET GROUTING/CONSOLIDATION GROUTING
To reduce the deformability of jointed or shattered rock.
For effective control of seepage in large zones of

fractured and jointed rocks it is necessary to treat the
contact of the core and rock foundation by blanket
grouting.
The depth of blanket grouting hole should be at least 6 m.
160
Cont…
Grouting in Rock
BLANKET GROUTING/CONSOLIDATION GROUTING
The normal practice of splitting the spacing starting with

an initial spacing of 6 to 12.0 m for each of the rows.
Final spacing depends upon the joints pattern, normally

3.0 m is provided.
Special geological condition requires closer spacing.
161
Grouting in Rock
CURTAIN WIDTH
The curtain width at the core contact should match the core
base, usually width in the range of 1/3 to 1/5 head is
provided.
The main curtain should extend to rock or impervious
stratum and the width should be reduced from the width at
core contact to the main curtain width, about ¼ the depth of
the pervious alluvium.
The main curtain should have two or more rows depending
upon the requirements strata. For clay cement silicate
aluminate grouting the main curtain should have a width of
1/7 of head.
162
Grouting in Rock
CURTAIN WIDTH Cont…
To safeguard the foundation against credibility hazard.
To reduce quantity of seepage.
To safeguard foundation credibility The limiting lugeon
value, excess of which given below requires grouting.
Item Rock below COT
Laminar flow 3 to 10
Turbulent flow 3 to 5
Dilation 1 to 3
Washout and hydraulic fracturing 1 to 3
Voids fill 3 to 5
163
MIX PROPORTION &
GROUTING PRESSURE
Grout Mixture
Rock grouting is usually performed with a mixture of cement
and water with or without additives.
The cement generally used are.
Ordinary Portland IS 269:1989

o IS 8112:1989
o IS 12269:1987
Portland Slag IS 455:1989
Sulphate Resisting Portland IS6909:1990
Supersusulphated Cement IS 6909:1990
Portland Pozzolana IS 1489
(Part 1&2) 1991
165
Grout Mixture
Other solid materials may be used as additives to the grout
mixture are:
Pozzolanas such as flyash (IS 3812:1981) and calcined

shale (IS 1344:1981).
As early strength is important on most grouting jobs, the

pozzolana may behave only as inert non-cementing
fillers.
Fine sands (IS 383:1970) are economical additives

widely used in grouting.
166
Grout Mixture
Other solid materials may be used as additives to the grout
mixture are:
The use of coarse sand grout mixures is particularly
advisable when large voids cavaties are to be grouted.
Fine non-cementitious materials like bentonite
(IS12584:1989), clay and silt may also be used. Using in
bulk reduces cost but also reduces strength and water-
tightness.
When used in small quantities it reduces bleeding and
segregation.
167
Grout Mixture
Admixture
Use in small quantities the following admixtures impart
certain desirable characteristics:
Retards to delay setting time.
Accelerator to hasten setting time.
Lubricants for increasing workability.
Protective colloids to minimize segregation.
Expansion materials to minimize shrinkage.
168
Grout Mixture
Grout Mix Proportion
For determining the mix proportions the viscosity&
bleeding of grout, strength and economy shall be the
main consideration:
Mix proportion should be exercised according to

the following guidelines (IS-6066:1994)
The choice of grouting mixtures is based on results

of percolation tests conducted prior to grouting.
Ranging from 5:1 to 0.8:1 are recommended.

169
Grout Mixture
Grout Mix Proportion Cont…
For determining the mix proportions the viscosity&

bleeding of grout, strength and economy shall be the main
consideration:
In exceptional cases mixture leaner that 10:1 need be used.
If grout is too thick their travel may get obstructed at a

short distance and fine seems may not be filled up.
If thin grout is used and continued for too long a time, the
grouting operation may get unduly prolonged and may be
expensive.
170
Grout Mixture
If openings are large and grout is thin, grout
consumption will be excessive even with low pressure.
No general rules can be stipulated manner in which the
thickening of the grout is to be carried out.
The appropriate sequence for every site may be decided
after a review of the results of initial grouting.
As a guide, the mix should be thickened if there is no
increase in the pressure after continuous grouting of about
10 minutes.
171
Grout Mixture
Initially to start grouting operation lean mix shall be

adopted.
An initial mix having water cement ratio of 20:1 by volume
may be satisfactory to allow slurry of the grout into all
fissures and voids to set as a lubricant for the following
injection.
As a guide, the mix should be thickened if there is no
increase in the pressure after continuous grouting of 10
minutes.( C1.12.2 of IS 6066 – 1994).
172
Grout Mixture
In case of higher water loss in any of these holes, sanded
grout (2 sand : 1cement to 1sand: 1 cement) may be
injected in sequence as per the requirement and thereafter
conventional grouting be done with thinner grout, starting
with 10:10 to 1:1 (water : cement) and vice – versa so as to
fill up the gaps.
CaCl2, 2% by weight of cement may be added for quick

setting. ( except reinforcement areas).
If hole accepts excessive grout then the mix ratio be

thickened.
173
Grout Mixture
The grouting should be continued till refusal stage is achieved
i.e the rate of intake becomes almost negligible say 1.0
litre/min averaged over a period of 10 minutes at desired
limiting pressure up to 3 kg/ cm2 and 1.5 lirte/min for pressure
between 3 and 10 kg/cm2.
It is desirable to carry out the grouting with the mixture of
cement and water only. However if the intake is more, the
grout may be thickened by using inert materials like.
Pozzolan as or fine sand, rock powder, clay bentonite etc.
174
Grout Mixture
Grout mix for Multiple Line Grout Curtains
In case of multiple line grout curtain differs from single line

curtains.
In the outer line thick grouts may be used to prevent over

travel and to block the more pervious zones.
In the central lines grout may be thickened very gradually and

comparatively thinner grout may be used at the start.
Thickening of grouts may be carried out more gradually in

tertiary holes as compared to primary and secondary holes.
175
Grout Mixture Cont…
Grout mix for Multiple Line Grout Curtains
Thickening of grouts may be carried out more gradually in

tertiary holes as compared to primary and secondary holes.
In order to prevent over travel of grout in wide joints, sodium

silicate or sodium hexa meta phosphate is sometimes added.
For increasing the flowability in case of thin joints, 2 to 3%

bentonite is added.
176
Grout Pressure
Control of Grout Pressure
Control of pressure should be exercised according to the

following guidelines (IS-6066:1994):
Control of grouting pressure is very important to avoid

excessive pressure and resulting damages. The pressure shall
be built up gradually from a less value to desired value.
The limiting value of pressure for each zone and depth may be
established initially from the results of trial grouting, along
with observations of upheaval. Fig-2 may be used as guide.
Pressure limits may be decided by analysis of the results of

percolation test.
177
Grout Pressure
Control of Grout Pressure Cont…
Limiting pressures may be decided by continuous review of
the trends of pressure and rate of intake during grouting
operation.
Grout injection pressure to be adopted shall be between 1.5

kg/cm2 to 3.0 kg/cm2.
The grout injection pressure shall depend upon depth of the

hole in a stage and available over burden above the hole.
special cases.
178
Grout Pressure
Control of Grout Pressure Cont…
The grout pressure should be such that it should travel

through the cavities to the maximum possible distance at the
same time, it shall not be so excessive that it may cause
upheaval.
Review the Acceptance criterion.
Consider chemical grouting in special cases.
179
Grout Pressure
Guide for Grouting Pressures
180
DRAINAGE MEASURES
Drainage Measures
[Internal Drainage System]
Toe drain
Blanket drain
Chimney and blanket

drain
Impermeable core and

blanket
182
Drainage Measures
[Drainage & Filters]
.
183
Drainage Measures
[Relief Wells]
 Consists of a pipe (10 to 15 cm diameter)
having narrow slots placed in the Centre,
surrounded by graded filter media (45 to 90 cm
diameter) sunk near d/s toe of earth dam.
 Permit the ingress of seepage water into the well
allowing it to rise to the outfall (relief) level
where the pressure gets relieved.
 Ensures safety of the earth dam when the cut-off
is partial or reliance is placed on upstream
blanket for controlling seepage,
 Controls the pressure developed below the d/s
toe of the dam, especially when impervious
layer of the soil at the top overlays a pervious
layer.
 A system of relief wells suitably spaced reduces
the intensity of the under seepage pressure and
render it practically harmless.
184
Drainage Measures
[Drainage Hole]
185
Details of
Foundation
Drain
Gallery
186
Strengthening Measures [Dental Treatment]
187
Strengthening Measures [Dental Treatment]
188
CASE STUDIES
BHAKRA DAM
190
BHAKRA DAM
Three CLAYSTONE bands (i.e., the Upstream or Heel, the
Middle and the Downstream bands) traverse the foundation
area of 226 m high Bhakra Dam.
The D/S claystone band does not effect the stability of the
dam and the left power plant has been located on this band.
The HEEL CLAYSTONE band is 30 to 45 m wide and

dips at an angle of 70 to 75˚ D/S with the nearest Point 22.8
m U/S of the heel of the dam and recedes away from the
higher elevations.
191
BHAKRA DAM
The foundation rock (sandstone) was found to have a
modulus of elasticity equal to that of the concrete used in
the dam.
The tests on claystone showed that it had variable modulus

of elasticity ranging from 0.2 to 0.28 times of concrete.
It was apprehended that on account of continued

submergence under great depths of water, this band might
become plastic and give way under the load of the dam.
192
BHAKRA DAM
The claystone band in the river portion was excavated to a
safe depth and backfill the seam with a concrete plug to act
as a strut for transferring the thrust from the dam to U/S
rock.
Photoelastic studies were carried out to determine the

stresses expected to exist in the plug concrete and the
adjoining rock.
Max. Compressive stresses at the heel would be obtained

for the condition with minimum reservoir level (EL. 439m)
and earthquake force acting U/S.
193
BHAKRA DAM
The most severe case occurs when the seam is completely
disintegrated and the least severe when it is intact.
The problem resolves into finding out the stresses for

different depths of plug and assuming different depths of
claystone disintegration.
The studies indicates that the stresses in the plug and the
adjoining rock decreased rather rapidly for depths of plug
down to 30 m and varied gradually thereafter.
194
BHAKRA DAM
The most severe case occurs when the seam is completely
disintegrated and the least severe when it is intact.
The problem resolves into finding out the stresses for
different depths of plug and assuming different depths of
claystone disintegration.
The studies indicates that the stresses in the plug and the
adjoining rock decreased rather rapidly for depths of plug
down to 30 m and varied gradually thereafter. i.e., the
depth of plug beyond 30 m didn’t martially contributed
to reduction of stresses.
195
BHAKRA DAM
196
BHAKRA DAM
The reservoir was filled in 1958.
In August 1962, cracks were observed in the plug galleries and
leakage increased indicating development of probable tensile
stresses within the plug.
The galleries were plugged to prevent leakage.
The cracking of the plug could be attributed possibly to the
occurrence of tensile stresses in the heel region under
reservoir-full condition, a condition which was not tested in
the photo-elastic model and the strut was designed for
compressive stresses under reservoir-empty condition.
197
BHAKRA DAM
The Middle Claystone band varies in width from 6 to 9 m
and is completely confined by the dam except were it merges
from under dam in the left abutment.
It is treated by excavating it out and backfilling with
Precooled Concrete.
The trenching depth was based on Shasta & Friant Dam
formulae.
The plug-stone contacts thoroughly grouted.
A supplementary longitudinal drainage gallery was provided
U/S of the claystone band for releasing any water pressure that
might build up U/S of the almost impervious claystone band.
198
SARDAR SAROVAR
DAM
199
SARDAR SAROVAR DAM
The Sardar Sarovar Dam is founded on Basalt rock.
The lava flows are 10-15 m thick approx.
It is treated by excavating it out and backfilling with
Precooled Concrete.
Foundation investigations revealed the presence of a reverse
fault in the deepest river portion.
The dam site is criss-crossed by a number of dolerite dyke
intrusions with result that the rock in the foundation is
fractured.
Modulus of Deformation of
Basalt : 80,000 kg/cm2
Fault-Zone material : 8000 kg/cm2
200
SARDAR SAROVAR DAM
Normal concrete-plug treatment has been provided for the fault
zone.
Excavation of trench of width 12.5 m (assumed width of
fault zone ) below the normal foundation level to a depth of
18.75 m (1.5 times the width of the fault ) on the U/S and 25
m (twice the width of the fault ) on the D/S along the fault
and backfilling with concrete.
An increasing depth of the plug from the U/S to the D/S has
been provided in view of the increasing stresses along the dam
base under the reservoir-full conditions.
201
SARDAR SAROVAR DAM
Section along the fault showing treatment of fault zone
202
SARDAR SAROVAR DAM
Sectional elevation across fault showing details of concrete plug
and grouting
203
SARDAR SAROVAR DAM
Excavation of two shafts on the U/S and the downstream ends
of the trench of depth equal to 12 m & 6 m respectively below
the trench bottom and backfilling with concrete to act as
seepage cut-offs.
Contact grouting between the side faces of the plug and the
excavated slopes of the trench.
A thin weak layer of redbole (crushed basalt with very little
clay content) is present between the two lava flows below the
foundation level of the dam on the left of the fault zone, and
two layers of weak and friable argillaceous sandstone in
between two component rock masses on the right of the fault
zone.
204
SARDAR SAROVAR DAM
The remedial measures for improving the sliding resistance
along the weak layers comprised:
A grid of longitudinal and transverse shear keys (3.0 X 2.5 m)
spaced 7.5 m and 11.5 m respectively in two directions for the
redbole layers.
A grid of similar keys (3.0 X 3.5 m) spaced 7.0 m and 11.5 m
in the longitudinal and transverse directions respectively for
the argillaceous sandstone layers.
The shear keys were constructed by excavating drifts and
backfilling them with concrete.
Longitudinal shear keys were also provided in the spillway
portion (adjacent to fault zone on the right).
205
SPILLWAY SELECTION OF
SARDAR SAROVAR DAM (Block 47)
206
SUPA DAM
207
SUPA DAM
The foundation rock at the dam site consists predominantly of
banded calcareous magnetite quartzite.
There are numerous zones of weathered and weak pockets of
varying dimensions at the heel of the dam blocks, especially in
the left-flanks blocks.
To transfer the load to better rock on the U/S of the dam, a
concrete strut of 9m thickness and 20m length was provided.
To avoid tensile cracking, a joint was provided between the
body of the dam and the strut.
208
SUPA Dam Showing Heel Strut
209
SUPA Dam Showing D/S Concrete Plug
210
CLYDE DAM
211
Dudhganga Dam
Masonry Dam across Dudhganga River near Asangaon,

Taluka Radhanagri, District Kolhapur
Date of Completion: May 31, 1998
Project Features: Major Dam in masonry with earthen flanks.

Length = 570 m, Height = 85.3 m, Total Capacity = 28 TMC.212
Shear Key at Dudhganga Dam
213
Rana Pratap Dam
214
Rana Pratap Dam section: Cable Anchors
for improving sliding resistance
215
Dworshak Dam
216
Dworshak Dam section Buttressing structure
for improving sliding resistance
217
The end
Thanks for your attention

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Foundation Investigation

A geological investigation is required to

The surface that separates each successive layer of a

Foliation often occurs parallel to original bedding, but it

Foliation is exhibited most prominently by sheety

Shear zones can occur in the following geotectonic settings:

Margin of a large dextral sense shear zone with near horizontal

The main macroscopic indicators are striations (slickensides),

En echelon tension gash arrays (or extensional veins), characteristic of

The Permeability of each material .

The deformation modulus of the foundation. Accurate knowledge of

Depth of Bedrock surface below the unconsolidated surface

Location of and estimation of potential seepage through zones of

RQD is defined as the percentage of intact core pieces longer

The core should be at least NW size (54.7 mm or 2.15 inches

Rock Quality Designation Description of Rock Quality

This system was the first to make reference to shotcrete

RSR system demonstrates the logic involved in developing a

1. Parameter A, Geology: General appraisal of geological

b. Rock hardness (hard, medium, soft, decomposed).

c. Geologic structure (massive, slightly faulted/folded,

RSR : Parameter A : General Area Geology

Seismic Refraction utilizes measurement of time delay

Seismic Refraction Technique yields only a zoning of

Rock Mass Quality

0.2 Very Poor

There are three foundation material properties which must

Shearing Strength and

Compressive Strengths of Rocks

The most common measure of compressive strength is the

Usually compressive strength of rock is defined by the

It is one of the most important mechanical properties of rock

TESTING OF IN-SITU ROCK

TESTING OF IN-SITU ROCK

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS OF ROCKS

Shear Strengths of Rocks

This corresponds to the sum of the strength of the cementing material

As the displacement continues, the shear stress will fall to some

In a shear test each specimen is subjected to a stress Vn normal to the

1. Plate jacking tests (PJT) :

2. Plate loading tests (PLT) :

Other Engineering Properties of Rock Mass

Other Engineering Properties of Rock Mass

Structure stability is usually assessed in terms of the factor

• Unit weight of foundation and backfill materials.

In the foundation, the horizontal shear is comparatively

*For stability of foundation against sliding. Factor of safety

Mitchell, J M and Jardine, F M (2002)

Preparatory works, Excavation,

Grubbing: Digging up of roots, buried logs and other

Stripping: Removal of humus & organic top soil

River Diversion: Removal of water from the dam site /

 Strengthen the Dam foundation

The in-situ permeability is governed by the size, extent and

This is conducted by constant mead method in accordance

The average permeability of pervious deposits may be

Pervious soils are generally heterogeneous, and the grain size

The grout flow generally concentrates along layers or

Hence, it is necessary to treat short lengths of grout holes at a

A. Soils of different characteristics should be treated

B. It should be possible to treat short sections of the

C. Leakage along the boreholes shall be prevented.

(Adopted from clause 3.3.1 of IS 6066:1994)

Permeation Compaction Hydrofracturing