Benthos

• Seafloor habitats are termed benthic, an organism

living in or on the bottom is a benthont, and the
assemblages of organisms are termed benthos.

• Benthic habitats grade downward in a series:

intertidal, subtidal, bathyal (continental slope
depths), abyssal, and hadal (trenches).
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
AND MARINE ORGANISMS

The basic ecological divisions of the ocean

 oceanic zone

Photic zone Aphotic zone

epipelagic zone mesopelagic

bathypelagic
abyssopelagic
zones
Bottom divisions are labeled benthic and begin with the:

Intertidal or littoral zone, the band of coast alternately covered and

uncovered by tidal action.

The supralittoral zone, the splash zone above the high intertidal, is not
technically part of the ocean bottom.

Sublittoral zone, which is further divided into inner and outer

segments:
The inner sublittoral is ocean bottom near shore, and the outer
sublittoral is ocean floor out to the edge of the continental shelf.
The bathyal zone covers seabed on the slopes and down to great depths,
where the abyssal zone begins.

The hadal zone (Hades + underworld) is the deepest seabed of all, the
trench walls and floors.
 Mostly
Spray or Splash Zone shelled
orgs

High Tide Zone

Middle Tide Zone

Many soft
Low Tide Zone bodied
orgs and
algae
 Benthic Plants
• Benthic macrophyte communities include
• *Algae that are most abundant on rocky shores in
temperate zones. E.g kelps (brown algae)
*large angiosperms (flowering plants) include :
1- tropical mangrove swamps
2- estuarine saltmarshes “marshgrasses”
3- meadows of seagrasses

MEASUREMENTS OF BENTHIC PRIMARY

PRODUCTION
 BENTHIC ANIMALS
• Benthic animals (or
zoobenthos)
• 1- The infauna are
those species that live
wholly or partly within
the substrate; this
category includes
many clams and
worms (polychaetes)
as well as other
invertebrates Representative infauna, showing their burrows and
• Infaunal species usually living positions. (a) Hydrobia, a snail; (b) burrow of
Pygospio, a polychaete; (c) burrow of Corophium, an
dominate communities amphipod; (d) Arenico/a, a polychaete; and the clams
(e) Cardium, (f) Macoma, (g) Scrobicularia, and (h)
in soft substrates
• 2- The epifauna are those animals living on or
attached to the seafloor; about 80% of the larger
zoobenthos belong to this category.
Representative
epifauna and epiflora.

3- Epibenthos : those animals that live in association

with the seafloor but also swim temporarily above it;
animals such as prawns and crabs, or flatfish.
 Classify benthic animals into size categories
• Macrofauna (or macrobenthos): those animals retained by a
1.0-mm-mesh sieve. These are the largest benthic animals,
including starfish, mussels, most clams, corals, etc.

• Meiofauna (or meiobenthos): those animals retained by a 0.1-

1.0-mm-mesh sieve. These are small animals commonly found
in sand or mud. The group includes very small molluscs, tiny
worms, several small crustacean groups (including benthic
copepods), as well as less familiar invertebrates

• Microfauna (or microbenthos): those animals that are smaller

than 0.1 mm in dimension. This smallest size category is
largely made up of protozoans, especially ciliates .
SYSTEMATICS AND
BIOLOGY
 BENTHIC COMMUNITIES
• Benthic communities, ranging from the highest
intertidal levels to the deepest trenches
• In shallow water, both phytoplankton and benthic
plants contribute to the primary production of benthic
communities.
• The great majority of benthic communities, however,
are located in the
• aphotic zone, and most are entirely dependent on
organic matter that is photosynthetically produced in
the euphotic pelagic zone
 INTERTIDAL ENVIRONMENTS
• Make a small part of the world Oceans
• Includes:
• 1- rocky shores > epifauna
• 2- sandy beaches > infauna
• 3- mudflats > infauna

• they support rich and diverse communities of

marine plants and invertebrates as well as birds and
inshore species of fish. Even some land mammals.
• Tides are the periodic rise and fall of sea level over
a given time interval, and they are caused by the
interaction between the gravitational attraction of
the Moon and Sun on the Earth, and the centrifugal
force resulting from the rotation of the Earth and
Moon.
• semidiurnal tides (twice each day) in most coast.
• diurnal tide (one tide per day).
• spring tides (Tidal range is greates) twice each
month when the Earth, Sun, and Moon are aligned.
• neap tides (tidal range is minimal) at the first and
the third quarters of the Moon, when these
planetary bodies are not in alignment
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND ADAPTATIONS
OF INTERTIDAL ORGANISMS
• exposed to air
• wide fluctuations in temperature and salinity.
• Rainfall and land runoff both contribute to
lowering salinity
• In cold climates, intertidal organisms are subjected
to ice formation and ice scouring.
• In addition, many intertidal regions are exposed to
heavy wave action and current motion.
• 1- burrow into the soft substrates

• 2- Close their shells such as bivalved molluscs and

gastropoda.

• 3- Shells, or other types of exoskeletons.

•
• 4- Strong attachment to rock surfaces

• 5- Equipped to bore into hard surfaces by

mechanical abrasion, chemical secretions, or both.
Characteristic features of rocky shores
1- Rocky shores provide hard substrates for benthic macroalgae.

2- The variation in topography of rocky shores provide several

Substrates, shelter and refuges for benthic biota leading to increase
In species richness and greatest diversity.

3- Rocky shores inhabiting species are characterized by having

Powerful limbs or organs for running and climbing (crab), creeping
(chiton, Pattela), fixin (Brancles)or rapidly escaping under rock.

4- the rock are standing in striking against wave action, current,

Erosion Which makes them more stable for life.

5- Most of the dominant organisms of the intertidal rocky areas are

solitary or colonial animals
- Shore profiles differ widely along the coasts of the
Red Sea: From Fossil Coral cliffs (30-40m) to wide
horizontal (100 m) expanses of beach rock producing
intertidal reef flats

Example of rocky shore fauna

Vertical zonation and the species
composition of the rocky shore
depending on the following characterize:

1- The slope of the rocky shores and geographic location

2- The tidal range (amplitude)
3- The exposure to wave action or are protection
* The universal scheme for rocky shore zonation
1- The supralittoral (spray) zones
2- The supralittoral fringe
3- The midlittoral zone
4- the infralittoral fringe
5- The sublittoral zone
Spray zone
region above the
spring high tide
line; covered by
water only during
storms

Intertidal zone
region between
the high and low
tidal extremes
Supralittoral zone (Spray or Splash)
Mostly
shelled
Supralittoral fringe orgs

Middlelittoral Zone

Infralittoral fringe

Many
soft
bodied
Sublittoral Zone orgs and
algae
Abiotic factors affecting organisms living
in the intertidal zone:
• Salinity
• Temperature
• Air and light exposure
• Tidal flow
• Waves and current action
• Substrate
• Wind direction and strength
• Dissolved O2
• Storms
• Natural Disasters
 Littoral Fringe: Includes
* Semi terrestrial crabs grapsid

* Periwinkles, Blue green

algae.

* Barnacles
* Small gastropods ( Planaxis sulcatus and
Littorina, Nerita)
* Isopods.
(Ligia exotica and L. pigmentana) Ligia exotica
 Eulittoral Zone:
* Chthamalid barnalces
* Periwinkles and Nerita undata
*Large barnacles Tetraclita aquamosa
*Macroalgae (green algae and red algae
*Sea lettuce (Ulva)
*Large chitons Acanthoplura haddoni
* Mussels and Oysters Oysters
* The Crab Metapograpsus messor
* brittle stars: Ophiocoma erinaceus and O. scolopendrina
•The cone shell (Conus frigidus)
 Sublittoral Fringe:
•Red Algae, calcareous green
algae, brown algae.
• Mollusca (Like Conus sp.)
•Crabs, Urchins (Echinoetra
and other Invertebrates)
•Corals (Like Millepora, Echinometra mathei

•Gradual decline in density of

algal species sea grasses
•Gastropods (Conus and
Strombus and sea slugs
Conus Strombus sea slugs
Comparison with other Indian Ocean Rocky
shores: It could be concluded that
•Red Sea rocky shores show similar zonation
patterns to other Indian ocean shores.
• Species diversity is often higher in the open
Indian ocean due to:
-Geographical isolation.
- The large seasonal temp. changes.
-Lack of severe wave action.
-Small tidal range
 Adaptations of rocky shore animals:
1-Adaptation for attachment to rocks:
- Calcareous and silicious sponges occur as encrusting
forms.
- Sea anemones are firmly lodged with the help of the
pedal disc
- Polychaetes with a calcareous tube adhere to the rocks
or sea weeds.
- Balanus has cement gland near the base of the stalk.
- Ascidians produce an adhesive secretion which help
them to fix to the substratum.
-Development of a broad muscular foot for clinging to the
surface like in Chiton, Nerita, …..
Morphological changes for the sedentary
mode of life
1-The loss of locomotory organs e. g. Mytilus
2-Mouth and anus are brought to the same
level e.g.: Polyzoans and Ascidians.
3- Development of rapid powers of
contraction when conditions become
unfavorable, e.g.: Cirri movement of
Balanus
4- Development of efficient sense organs in
tube dwelling polychaetes.
5-Development of thick test to withstand
insulation and evaporation or desiccation
6- Adoption of radial symmetry and
ciliary mode of feeding.
7- Many have the power of reproducing
by budding and thereby forming large
colonies.
8- Gregariousness is an adaptive feature
in many of these intertidal species
Avoidance of desiccation in sedentary
animals
1-The gill filaments of the tubicolous
polychaete serpulids are enlarged and
serve to close the mouth of the tube in
the adverse conditions.
2- The habit of tube dwelling in littoral
polychaetes helps in preventing
desiccation and in escaping from the
impact of waves and from enemies.
3- In Balanus the shell is tightly closed when
they are exposed to air, an air bubble is
imprisoned between them which serves an
additional source of oxygen.
Some barnacles can survive for about 44
days away from water.
4- The Opercula of the gastropod molluscs
and the shells of bivalves prevent evaporation
of water from the interior of the animal.
5- The ability to remain for long periods in a
condition of suspended activity is a marked
feature of shore animals.
Biotic factors affecting organisms
living in the intertidal zone:

• Competition for space and food

• Predation
• Reproduction
• Substrate settlement preference
• Osmoregulation
Mortality: Snail predation and intraspecific competition for space (Balanus), and both
factors become increasingly important at lower tidal levels. For Chthamalus, intraspecific
competition for space with the faster-growing Balanus. Few Chthamalus larvae settle below
mean tide level, but those that do are eliminated by predation and interspecific competition
The development of defensive mechanisms in animals
living on exposed rocks is a common feature e. g:
-The spicules in sponges and stinging cells in Cnidarians.
- The snails are often provided with shells beset with
spines.
- The bivlave shells are highly arched, thick and are
strengthened by corrugations ‫تموجات‬.
-The Crustaceans are provided with thick and spiny
shells.
- Octopus has the ability to change its colour to suit the
colour of habit.
Protection against the pounding action of the
waves has been attained in several ways:
-The sea weeds offer a natural cover and absorb
the impact of waves and act as a refuge of many
animals.
-Protection by living in the crevices and tunnels. In
some fish-inhabiting rocks, the pelvic fins are either
partially or completely modified as suckers by
which they cling to the rocky surfaces.
-The flattening of the body to reduce friction is a
common feature of rocky coast animals.
Sandy shores
Size Particles of sandy shore:
1- Very coarse sand 1-2 mm
2- Coarse sand: 0.5-1 mm
3- Medium sand: 250-500 µm
4- Fine sand: 125-250 µm.
5- Very fine sand: 62-125 µm.
6- Silt: 4-62 µm.
* The yellow color of sandy beaches due to Siliceous
coarse sand. Some beaches are grey or muddy due to
particles mixed with (silt 4-62 µm) and clay(less than 4
µm) and organic matter debris.
* Sand may be mixed with foraminifera, diatoms,
calcareous algae, coral.
The deposition of sand is affected by:
-Tidal amplitude ‫( نطاق‬It is small in the Red
sea). -Wave action (break down at
fringing reef, so that sediments are often
poorly sorted and can vary rapidly).
-Currents.
* Sand beaches are: -liable to disturbance
by wind and wave. –No firm anchorage for
plants and animals. –The presence of
embedded stones and rocks provide a
substrate for growing of some algae.
* In sheltered areas, the sand may
by stable allowing rooting of
marine plants as well as existing of
microscopic vegetation of diatoms
and colored flagellates.
Zonation of sandy shores
1- The littoral fringe (dry sand)
This area occupies the upper parts of sandy shores,
and characterizes by dry sand.

2- The eulittoral zones

This zone lies between the tidal levels and the
superficial layers of sand, may dry briefly during low
tides.
3- The sublittoral zones
The demarcation of this zone is very indistinct on soft
substrate shores.
• Sandy shores are divided into:
-Littoral fringe: The upper parts of sandy
shores:
-With dry sand. -In Red Sea is marked by
pyramids produced by ghost crab Ocypode
saratan (nocturnal animal). –It is inhabited
with other Crustacea such as: Ocypode
cordimana and land hermit crab: Coenobita
scavola and the amphipod:Talorchestia
martensi.
The isopod: Tylos exiguus.
-Eulittoral zone:
It lies between the tidal level and the
superficial layers of sand which may dry
during low tides. –Animals:
-isopod Eurydice arabica –Polychaetes.
At lower tide: -mole crab Hippa picta,
amphipod sp. Urothoe and –isopod
Exosphaeroma reticulatum.
-In sheltered sand beaches with fine sand and
more stable sediments of high organic matter:
-Uca sp. (deposit feeder).
In lower eulittoral zone: a deposit
feeding crab: Dotila sulcat –
Polychaetes. –gastropods (Nassarius
clathratus) –Oliva bulbosa with
bivalves Venus spp.
3-Sublittoral fringe:
-The demarcation of this zone is very
indistinct on soft substrate shores.
- It is best considered as the level at which
species found more commonly.
Animals:
-In clean sand sediments, sand dollar
Echinodiscus auritus. –Sea cucumbers
Holothuria arenicola –Batches of sea grasses
-Calappa hepatica (crab) is common
-Thalamita savignyi (crab)
-Portunus pelagicus
The general biota:
Echinoderms (particularly star fish, sea
cucumbers and heart sea urchins),
Crustaceans (portunids and ocypodids) are
common at sublittoral fringe with the
appearance of algal species dominated by
Turbinaria, Polysiphonia at exposed shores
seagrsses Halodule uninervis and
Thalassodenderon ciliatum algal species of
Cladophora, Polysiphonia, and
Herpisiphonia are found.
Portunus pelagicus
-On sheltered shores the sediments
grades into muddy sand and the fauna
change according to organic content of
the substratum.:-
-The crab Macrophthalmus sp. –
burrowing anemones. –acron worm.
-Astropecten sp. –Sea grasses Halodule
uninervis. –Cymodocea serrulata. –
Thalassodendron ciliatum.
Productivity:
-The faunal densities and biomass of tropical
shores and particularly in the Red Sea are low.
- Exposed shores contain 9-10 macro species with
maximum densities of 1200/ m2
-Interstitial meiofauna were 460/100 m2 in some
coasts.
- Shelteredbeaches contain much
higher species diversity and over 80
macro species.
Sandy shores
Coenobita scavola Ocypode saratan

Ocypode cordimana

The isopod
Eurydice arabica
The amphipod Talorchestia & Gammarus
 The mole crab: Hippa picta

Uca

Oliva bulbosa Nassarius clathratus

The sea cucumbers Holothuria arenicola
Venus sp
Calappa hepatica
Macrophthalmus sp
Muddy shores
• The term Mud is applied to deposits
containing a high proportion of silt or clay.
* It is found only where conditions are
normally calm and without strong currents
(in wave protected areas).
* The sediments below the first few centimeters
form anaerobic layer because of:
- little exchange of interstitial water of mud
with sea water above.
- a high internal population of bacteria.
• Muddy shores are restricted to intertidal
areas completely protected from wave
action and with a source of fine grain
sediment particles.
• Therefore , these shores are located in partially
enclosed bays lagoons harbors and estuaries.
• The slope of mud shores is much flatter than
that of sand beaches.
Salt marshes and mud flats:
• The muddy shores often merge into salt marshes
where Spertina and other halophytic plants
become established.
• Common in temperate regions
• Extend landward from the mudflats
• Dominated by salt tolerant land grasses
• Spartina = cord grass (alterniflora and patens)
and other grasses (spike grass, switch grass etc.)
• Bushes/Shrubs = Groundsel bush, Iva
• Some invasive too…
The deoxygenated layer :
• In muddy shores the very fine particles
couple with the very flat angle of sediments .
• This means that the interstitial water do not
drain away and held within the substrate with
very poor interchange with seawater above.
• An anaerobic condition thus is prevails within
sediments forming the deoxygenated layer
under the first few centimeters of the
surface .
The redox potential discontinuity zone
• Reduces compounds diffuse upward from below
and as soon as oxygen is available, bacteria
oxidize these compounds and the oxidized end
products including CO2, NO3 and SO4, in turn are
incorporated into bacterial biomass and form the
basis of new food chains, some compounds diffuse
downward below the RPD zone and utilized by the
anaerobic bacteria. These bacteria in turn produce
more reduced compounds, which complete the
cycle;
- chemoautotrophic bacteria in the RPD zone
oxidize the reduced compounds and fixing CO2
and produce more organic materials.
Aerobic: a condition with oxygen for organisms,
Oxic.
• Anaerobic: condition: a condition depleted of
oxygen, Anoxic.
• Redox: Potential reduction-oxidation potential,
measured by an electrode. It is positive, meaning
oxidizing condition; negative-reduction condition.
• RPD: redox potential discontinuity.
• RPD layer: a transition zone between the upper
aerobic layer and the lower anaerobic layer,
characterized by a rapid change from a positive
redox potential (Eh) to a negative potential.
• Decomposition of organic matter is:
– by aerobic bacteria above RPD
– by anaerobic bacteria below RPD
• Chemoautotrophic bacteria: obtain energy
through the oxidation of a number reduced
compounds like H2S to produce organic matter.
They are primary producers.
• The RPD zone is significant biologically for
several reasons:
- reduced compounds diffuse upwards from
below.
- as soon as oxygen is available, bacteria
oxidize these compounds.
-The oxidized end products including carbon
dioxide, nitrate and sulphate are
incorporated into bacterial biomass and
form the basis of new food chain.
-Some compounds diffuse downwards below
the RPD zone and utilized by anaeropic
bacteria.
-These bacteria in turn produce more
reduced compounds which complete the cycle.
-Phosphate is also released which is
important for growth of plants.
-Chemoautotrophic bacteria in RPD zone
oxidizing the reduced compounds and fixing
carbon dioxide producing more organic
materials.
Adaptations of Organisms:
1- Burrow into the substrata Form permanent tubes
2- Physical adaptation to live under anaerobic condition
burrowing shrimps and clams have haemoglobin with much
higher affinity of oxygen; other animals use glycogen stores for
anaerobic metabolism.
3- Obtain oxygen-rich surface water and food through various
burrows, holes and tubes appear on the surface of -the mud flat.
Problems of living in sediment:
Desiccation is NOT as much of a problem:
1- But it is in coarse sediments.
2- Food availability:
Most infauna are deposit feeders or suspension feeders.
More organic matter (detritus) in fine sediments.
*- Use glycogen store for an aerobic metabolism in the cases
of shortage of oxygen
 Oxygen availability:
1- Used up by animals and bacteria.
2- Replenished by water flowing though sediment
3- Problem in muddy bottoms.
4- Anoxic = no oxygen.
5- Animals may pump water from the sediment
surface or adapt to low oxygen.
Types of Organisms:
Can tolerate silt:
Neries-Sabella sp.
-Mya truncata- Sabella sp.
Callianssa sp. Mya truncata-

Arinicola marina-
Cardium edule- Arinicola marina-

Amphitrite sp.
Bacteria
Venierupis sp.
Diatoms -Nassarius sp
Enteromorpha-Ulva

Muddy shores
ROCKY INTERTIDAL SHORES