 Classification of Vitamins

 Classification of Hormones
 Function of Vitamins
 Function of Hormones
 Vitamins are a group of organic nutrients
required in small quantities for a variety of
biochemical functions and which, generally,
cannot be synthesized by the body and must
therefore be supplied in the diet.

 A vitamin is defined as an organic compound

that is required in the diet in small amounts
for the maintenance of normal metabolic
integrity /healthy life processes.
 The lipid-soluble vitamins are apolar hydrophobic
compounds that can only be absorbed efficiently when there
is normal fat absorption.
 They are transported in the blood in lipoproteins or attached
to specific binding proteins.
 The fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K, are stored in the
body for long periods and are toxic if consumed in excess
than water-soluble vitamins.
 Eating a normal, well-balanced diet will not lead to toxicity in
otherwise healthy individuals. However, taking vitamin
supplements that contain higher doses of vitamins A, D, E
and K may lead to toxicity.
 The body only needs small amounts of any vitamin
 Vitamin A has many functions in the body.
 In addition to helping the eyes adjust to light
changes, vitamin A plays an important role in
bone growth, tooth development, reproduction,
cell division, gene expression, and regulation of
the immune system.
 The skin, eyes, and mucous membranes of the
mouth, nose, throat and lungs depend on vitamin
A to remain moist.
 Vitamin A is also an important antioxidant that
may play a role in the prevention of certain
cancers.
 Carotenoids, found in plants, comprise
carotenes and related compounds, known as
provitamin A, as they can be cleaved to yield
retinaldehyde and thence retinol and retinoic
acid.
 Retinoids comprise retinol, retinaldehyde,

and retinoic acid (preformed vitamin A, found

only in foods of animal origin)
 Eating a wide variety of foods is the best way to ensure that
the body gets enough vitamin A.


 The retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid forms of vitamin A are

supplied primarily by foods of animal origin such as dairy
products, fish and liver.

 Some foods of plant origin contain the antioxidant, beta-

carotene, which the body converts to vitamin A.

 Beta-carotene, comes from fruits and vegetables, especially

those that are orange or dark green in color.

 Vitamin A sources also include carrots, pumpkin, winter

squash, dark green leafy vegetables and apricots, all of which

are rich in beta-carotene.

 Vitamin A deficiency is known as
xerophthalmia.

 Night blindness and very dry, rough skin may

indicate a lack of vitamin A.

 Other signs of possible vitamin A deficiency

include decreased resistance to infections,
faulty tooth development, and slower bone
growth.
 There is only a limited capacity to metabolize vitamin
A, and excessive intakes lead to accumulation beyond
the capacity of binding proteins, so that unbound
vitamin A causes tissue damage.

 Symptoms of toxicity affect the central nervous

system (headache, nausea, ataxia, and anorexia, all
associated with increased cerebrospinal fluid
pressure), the liver (hepatomegaly with histologic
changes and hyperlipidemia), calcium homeostasis
(thickening of the long bones, hypercalcemia and
calcification of soft tissues), and the skin (excessive
dryness, desquamation, and alopecia).
 VITAMIN D IS REALLY A HORMONE

 Vitamin D is not strictly a vitamin since it can be synthesized in

the skin, and under most conditions that is its major source.
Only when sunlight is inadequate is a dietary source required.
 The main function of vitamin D is in the regulation of calcium
absorption and homeostasis; most of its actions are mediated by
way of nuclear receptors that regulate gene expression.

Food Sources for Vitamin D

 The primary food sources of vitamin D are milk and other dairy
products fortified with vitamin D. Vitamin D is also found in oily
fish (e.g., herring, salmon and sardines) as well as in cod liver
oil. In addition to the vitamin D provided by food, we obtain
vitamin D through our skin which produces vitamin D in
response to sunlight.

 Deficiency—leading to rickets in children and osteomalacia in

adults—continues to be a problem in northern latitudes, where
sunlight exposure is poor.
 Vitamin E benefits the body by acting as an antioxidant,
and protecting vitamins A and C, red blood cells, and
essential fatty acids from destruction.

 Many studies show a link between regularly eating an

antioxidant rich diet full of fruits and vegetables, and a
lower risk for heart disease, cancer, and several other
diseases.

Food Sources for Vitamin E

 About 60 percent of vitamin E in the diet comes from
vegetable oil (soybean, corn, cottonseed, and sunflower).
This also includes products made with vegetable oil
(margarine and salad dressing).

 Vitamin E sources also include fruits and vegetables,

grains, nuts (almonds and hazelnuts), seeds (sunflower)
and fortified cereals.
 Vitamin E is the generic descriptor for two families of
compounds, the tocopherols and the tocotrienols.

 The different vitamers (compounds having similar

vitamin activity) have different biologic potencies.

 The most active is D-α-tocopherol, and it is usual to

express vitamin E intake in milligrams of D-α-
tocopherol equivalents.

 Synthetic DL-α-tocopherol does not have the same

biologic potency as the naturally occurring
compound.
 Vitamin K is naturally produced by the bacteria in the intestines,
and plays an essential role in normal blood clotting, promoting
bone health, and helping to produce proteins for blood, bones,
and kidneys.

 Vitamin K was discovered as a result of investigations into the

cause of a bleeding disorder—hemorrhagic (sweet clover) disease
of cattle, and of chickens fed on a fat-free diet.

 The missing factor in the diet of the chickens was vitamin K,

while the cattle feed contained dicumarol, an antagonist of the
vitamin. Antagonists of vitamin K are used to reduce blood
coagulation in patients at risk of thrombosis—the most widely
used agent is warfarin

Food Sources for Vitamin K

 Good food sources of vitamin K are green, leafy-vegetables such
as turnip greens, spinach, cauliflower, cabbage and broccoli, and
certain vegetables oils including soybean oil, cottonseed oil,
canola oil and olive oil. Animal foods, in general, contain limited
amounts of vitamin K.
 Three compounds have the biologic activity of vitamin K
phylloquinone, the normal dietary source, found in green
vegetables; menaquinones, synthesized by intestinal bacteria,
with differing lengths of side chain; menadione, menadiol,
and menadiol diacetate, synthetic compounds that can be
metabolized to phylloquinone.

 Menaquinones are absorbed to some extent but it is not

clear to what extent they are biologically active as it is
possible to induce signs of vitamin K deficiency simply by
feeding a phylloquinone deficient diet, without inhibiting
intestinal bacterial action.
 Vitamin B complex
 Vitamin C
Eight of the water-soluble vitamins are known
as the vitamin B-complex group:
Thiamin (vitamin B1),
Riboflavin (vitamin B2),
Niacin (vitamin B3),
pyridoxine (vitamin B6 ),
folate (folic acid),
Cobalamine (vitamin B12)
Biotin and Pantothenic acid.
 The B vitamins are widely distributed in
foods, and their influence is felt in many
parts of the body.

 They function as coenzymes that help the

body obtain energy from food.

 The B vitamins are also important for normal

appetite, good vision, and healthy skin,
nervous system, and red blood cell formation.
 Sources of Food Sources
Vitamins Sources of Food
Vitamin B1 Peas, liver, and legumes.
(Thiamin) Most commonly, thiamin is found in whole grains and fortified grain products such as
cereal, and enriched products like bread, pasta, rice, and tortillas.
Among the nutrients added during the enrichment process are thiamin (B1), niacin
(B3), riboflavin (B2), folate and iron.
Vitamin B2 Liver, eggs, dark green vegetables, legumes, whole and enriched grain products, and
(Riboflavin) milk. Ultraviolet light is known to destroy riboflavin, which is why most milk is
packaged in opaque containers instead of clear.
Vitamin B3 Liver, fish, poultry, meat, peanuts, whole and enriched grain products.
(Niacin, Nicotinamide,
Nicotinic Acid.)
Vitamin B5 Liver, kidney, meats, egg yolk, whole grains, and legumes.
(Pantothenic Acid) Pantothenic Acid is also made by intestinal bacteria

Vitamin B6 Meats, whole grains and cereals, legumes, and green, leafy vegetables.
(Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal,
Pyridoxamine)

Vitamin B7 Sources of Biotin include liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, most fresh vegetables, yeast
(Biotin) breads and cereals. Biotin is also made by intestinal bacteria.

Vitamin B9. Liver, kidney, dark green leafy vegetables, meats, fish, whole grains, fortified grains
(Folic Acid, Folacin) and cereals, legumes, and citrus fruits.

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Only in foods of animal origin such as meats, liver, kidney, fish, eggs, milk and milk
products, oysters, shellfish.
 Ascorbic acid or Ascorbate is a vitamin for only some species
Vitamin C is a vitamin for human beings and other primates, the
guinea pig, bats, passerine birds, and most fishes and invertebrates;
other animals synthesize it as an intermediate in the uronic acid
pathway of glucose metabolism.
 Both ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid have vitamin activity.
 Vitamin C supports the body by holding cells together through collagen
synthesis.

 Vitamin C also helps in wound healing, bone and tooth formation,

strengthening blood vessel walls, improving immune system function,
increasing absorption and utilization of iron, and acting as an
antioxidant.

 Our bodies cannot synthesize or store vitamin C, an adequate daily

amount of this nutrient is essential for optimum health.


 Vitamin C, along with vitamin E acts an antioxidant, and plays a crucial

role in neutralizing free radicals in body.

 An antioxidant are usually vitamins, minerals, or a carotenoids, found

in food, that regulates the oxidation process and acts to repair damage
to cells of the body.

 Studies suggest that vitamin C may reduce the risk of certain cancers,
heart disease, and cataracts.
Sources for Vitamin C.
Consuming vitamin C-rich foods is the best method to ensure an

adequate intake of this vitamin.

While many common plant foods contain vitamin C, the best sources

are citrus fruits. Oranges, grapes, etc…

Vitamin C Deficiency.
Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy, causing a loss of collagen

strength throughout the body.

Loss of collagen results in loose teeth, bleeding and swollen gums,

and improper wound healing.

Conditions which tend to increase vitamin C requirements in body

Environmental stress, such as air and noise pollution

Use of certain drugs, such as oral contraceptives

Tissue healing of wounds

Growth (children from 0- 12 months, and pregnant women)

Fever and infection,smoking.

 Hormones in Plants and Animals
 Classification of Hormones in Plants and

Hormones
Plant Hormone
A natural substance that acts at low
concentrations to control plant activities.
Produced in one part of a plant and then

transported to other parts, where they initiate a

response

Plant Growth Regulators

Organic compounds or other nutrients which

in small amounts promote, inhibit or otherwise

modify physiological processes in plants
 There are 5 groups of natural plant hormones
and growth regulators:

 Auxins
 Gibberellins
 Cytokinins
 Ethylene
 Abscisic acid
 Auxin was the first plant hormone discovered
 The chemical itself was first isolated from horse urine, it is
indole acetic acid (IAA)
Synthesis
 Shoot and root meristematic tissues
 More in shoots than roots
 More in young leaves than in the mature
leaves
Functions
 Stimulates cell elongation
 Inhibits ethylene formation
 Induces sugar and mineral accumulation
at the site of application
 Induces new root formation by breaking
root apical dominance induced by CK
 Apical dominance: Inhibition of lateral
buds Involve in flower initiation & Fruit
growth
High auxin
concentration

Low auxin
concentration

Drawings depicting Coleus (Lamiaceaefamily).

 Without synthetic
With synthetic auxin auxin

Adventitious
roots growing
from stem tissue

Saintpaulia (Family:Gesneriaceae)
 Stimulates
◦ cell division and cell elongation (or both)
◦ controls enzyme secretions
◦ Example:
◦ Dwarf cultivars can be treated with GA and grow to
normal heights – indicates dwarf species lack normal
levels of GA
◦ Breaks dormancy in seeds and buds
 Stimulates seed germination & seedling growth
 Stimulates stem growth dramatically (internode
elongation )
 Size of leaf, flower
 Stimulates flower & fruit development
 Tends to suppress root formation and adventitious
embryo formation
Without GA With GA
Without GA With GA
 Synthesis
◦ root and shoot meristematic tissue
◦ much greater amounts in the roots than shoots
◦ meristematic regions of roots
◦ mature roots – small amount
◦ mature shoot cells
◦ Enhances adventitious shoot formation
◦ Lateral bud development
◦ Delays leaf senescence
◦ Involves in morphogenesis
◦ Promotes stomatal opening
◦ Promote cell division
 Found in all tissues with considerable cell
division
 Example: embryos (seeds) and germinating
seeds, young developing fruits.
 Roots supply cytokinins upward to the
shoots.
 The mix of auxin and cytokinin determine
“root”, “shoot”, or callus.
 BAP (benzylaminopurine)
 2-iP (isopenthylaminopurine)
 Kinetin
 Zeatin
 Synthesized in Nodes of stems

◦ response to shoot environmental, pest, or disease

stress
 bending
 Wounding

◦ the actively growing meristems of the plant

◦ senescing ripening or ageing fruits
◦ senescing (ageing or dying) flowers
◦ germinating seeds
◦ Induced by high levels of auxin
◦ root flooding
◦ Drought
 Ethylene as a gaseous hormone
◦ diffuses readily throughout the plant
 The smallest hormone
 Important in seed germination, fruit

ripening, epinasty (leaf bending), abscission

of leaves
 Synthesized in
◦ Green fruit and seeds in the beginning of the winter
season
◦ leaves and stems (particularly when water stressed)
 Produced in response to stress
 Released

◦ during desiccation
◦ by cells in danger of not having enough nutrients
locally or good enough environmental conditions to
survive
 Has been found to peak at night
 Involved with
◦ leaf and fruit abscission (fall)
◦ onset of dormancy in seeds
◦ onset of dormancy (rest period) in perennial flowers and shrubs
 effective in inducing closure of stomata in leaves
◦ indicating a role in the stress physiology in plants
 Induces
◦ senescence in already damaged cells and their proximate neighbors
◦ cell dormancy or senescence by a climactic increase or sustained level
stimulating the synthesis of GA and/or Ethylene
 Inhibits
◦ fruit ripening, the uptake of kinetin, cell growth, seed germination.
 Widespread in plant body
◦ moves readily through plant
 Interacts with other plant substances
◦ Auxins (Usually in an inhibitory manner)
◦ Giberellins (Reverses GA induced Amylase)
 General growth inhibitor
 Hormones are chemical substance secreted
by endocrine glands for maintenance of
reproduction and development
 Classification of Hormones
Endocrine glands produce two classes of hormones
Protein Based hormones and Cholesterol Based Hormones

Amino acids based:

Several amino acids in length known as peptide hormones,
whereas larger ones are polypeptide hormones.

Examples:
Insulin: Synthesized in the pancreas,
increases the entry of glucose into the cells, and regulates fat
storage.
Glucagons: Synthesized in the pancreas, are responsible for
increasing the conversion of stored fats to blood glucose.

Leptin: Produced by the fat cells, it informs the brain how much fat
is contained in the body.
 Cholesterol Based Hormones
 Obtained from cholesterol from the diet

a) Corticoids.
Glucocorticoids (principally cortisol) are released by the adrenal glands in response
to stress.
Increases breakdown of fats and proteins into glucose.
Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone) are also produced by the adrenal glands and
reduces salt secretion in the kidneys

b) Sex Steroids
ovaries and testes but also by the adrenal glands.
Androgens:
Testosterone (In males)
Masculinising and defeminising effects; Maintaining Male secondary sexual
characteristics Responsible for aggressive and sexual behaviours.
Estrogens:
Estradiol (In females)
Feminising effects, promoting female secondary sexual characteristics, water
retention, calcium metabolism, sexual behaviour and maternal behaviours.
Progesterone
Responsible for implantation of a fertilised ovum controls the stages of pregnancy.