Qualitative research designs and methodologies

1 February 2024
Oliver Mutanga
 Welcome & Course Overview

Morning Session (10:00 - 12:00)

Problem contextualization (Rakhshinda)

Qualitative research designs/ approaches
 Phenomenology
 Ethnography/ Auto ethnography
 Narrative research
 Case study
 Grounded theory

Afternoon Session (13:00 - 15:00)

 Reflective discussions
 Philosophical positioning as a researcher (Individual presentations)
 Closing Remarks
 Learning Outcomes

Understand Qualitative educational research components, describe & recognise

the key Qualitative approaches in Education

Critically analyse key theoretical, methodological, & ethical issues in

Qualitative educational research & present in a scholarly format

Use & explain essential Qualitative data collection & analysis methods

Understand how to review the literature to engage in the phases of

Qualitative research

Demonstrate the capacity for reflecting on ethical issues in conducting

Qualitative educational research
Demonstrate comprehensive knowledge in planning & conducting
Qualitative research
 Aim of this session

 Answer the following questions:

 What is a research design/ approach in qualitative research?
 What are some of the key approaches in education research?
 Why is it important?
 Qualitative Research Design/ approach

 Qualitative research is interested in human experience

 But which aspects of these experiences will be under focus?

 The researcher, research problem, purpose & research questions, sources etc. will
be influential

 The choice will then influence our overall strategy or approach that guides our study
 Why choosing an appropriate design is important?

 Alignment with the researcher & nature of problem & gaining in-depth
understanding (nuances)

 Methodological rigour (Sampling, data collection, analysis, ethics, sources e.g.

narrative-phenomenology-ethnography)

 Transferability & contribution to knowledge (e.g. case study, grounded theory)

 Approaches to Qualitative Research

Grounded
Narrative Phenomenology Ethnography
Theory

Focus on
Shared patterns
individual Reduce individual Discover context
within an entire
accounts of life experiences to specific theory
culture
experience universal
consensus

Objectivist /
Uses multiple Uses immersion in
Constructivist –
sources of textual daily activities as
predominantly
material Predominantly observation
interviews
interviews

Time consuming /
Lacks rigour Bracketing Time consuming
research intensive
researcher’s
experience is
difficult
 Phenomenology

 Understanding & representing in detail the lived experience of certain phenomena

(Smith & Osborne, 2003)
 www.ipa.bbk.ac.uk/

 “IPA is concerned with trying to understand lived experience and with how participants
themselves make sense of their experiences. Therefore it is centrally concerned with
the meanings which those experiences hold for the participants.”

 Refusal of subject-object dichotomy: Experiences are not independent of the

individual experiencing it (interpretive phenomenology)
 Phenomenology

 IPA focuses on exploring the research question as it relates specifically to our

chosen sample

 Includes as little participants as possible

 Explores narrowly-focused research questions to develop a theory that may

eventually be generalisable to similar populations

 Not concerned with group comparisons but on exploring one or two dimensions
within a single group

 Interviews are based on a minimal number of questions

 Focused on in-depth analysis with few & specific results emerging

 Examples of phenomenological topics in
inclusive education

 Understanding the phenomenon of social inclusion: Perspectives from students with

autism in higher education
 A phenomenological study on the experiences of LGBTI students and sense of
belonging in pedagogical universities
 Experiencing accessibility: Students‘ with physical disabilities’ navigation at university
campuses
 Main Processes in Phenomenology

 Identify the problem-phenomenon

 Exploration of this phenomenon through experiences of a group of people
 Experiences are both subjective to the people but also have an objective side,
commonalty
 Sampling (heterogeneous, how many participants?)
 Interview as the main data collection method
 What is the experience?
 What are the contextual/situational factors that influence the experience?
 Systematic data analysis (narrow to broader)
 Significant statements-> meaning units> detailed description of what and how
 Types of Phenomenology

 Descriptive/ direct exploration as free as possible from the presuppositions

 Describing the first hand experience

 Interpretive / where researcher is much more involved in interpreting the experiences

in accordance with contextual features of the experience

 Experiences are not independent of the interpretation of person which is influenced by

the contextual features
 Questions to answer when choosing
Phenomenology

 Can it be understood/solved by learning from shared experiences?

 Is the researcher aware of his stance? To what extent can he/she bracket out
himself/herself? How?

 Can participants who have conscious experiences regarding the phenomenon be

recruited?

 Can participants mostly be interviewed with broad questions for some time & share
their experience deeply?
 Ethnography

 Starts with anthropology & sociology

 Studying & learning from an entire culture-sharing group

 Large enough to observe the daily lives & interactions, patterns of values, behaviors,
beliefs, & language

 Mostly include interviews, observation & focus group discussions

 Characteristics of Ethnographic studies

 Complex & rich description of the culture of a culture-sharing group

 Patterns of language & social behavior are under exploration
 Interactions
 Rituals
 Ideas & belief behind these
 Theory is important to expect what to find
 Fieldwork
 interviews, observations, symbols, artifacts, & other sources evincing the cultural patterns
 The main aim is to grasp the pattern behind participants’ perspectives through data
from the field & the theory employed
 What do people do in this setting?
 How do they do it? Why?
 Inclusive Education topics that can be explored
using Ethnographic design

● An ethnographic study of inclusive practices in indigenous community schools

● Ethnography of peer interactions in primary school settings

 Inclusive Education topics that can be
explored using Ethnographic design

 Identify the problem

 (describing how a cultural groups behaves related to a situation/phenomenon )

 Locate the culture-sharing group

 (consider finding gatekeepers & key informants)
 Identify concepts, theories about the study group
 (e.g. learning, power relations, inequalities, inclusiveness, teacher-student interactions, technology)
 Determine type of ethnography
 Fieldwork in where the group lives/works
 (observation, interviews, symbols, artifacts, language-respecting daily lives)
 Analyse the cultural group benefitting from theme, single event, activities, or longer
 (from a general detailed description to specific theme)
 Describe the comprehensive cultural portrait of the group
 (participants [emic]+researcher[etic])
 Types of Ethnographic research

 It is a pluralistic approach with several types

 The main question is: Where is the researcher?

 Realistic ethnography
 objective account of the situation
 Researcher is in the background

 Critical ethnography
 Researcher as an advocator of the marginalized
 Emancipation of groups that are underrepresented in the society

 Autoethnography
 The researcher is at the centre
 Questions to answer when deciding a
particular Ethnography design
 What is the situation to be understood or the problem to be solved?

 Can the problem be described through interactions & behaviours of a culture-sharing

social group (class, school, neighborhood etc.)

 Does the researcher can locate a group to study this problem?

 Is there any concepts, theories about the problem & the group?

 Can researcher collect various types of data spending long time in the field? (ethics &
feasibility?)
 What about subjectivity? (realistic or critical ethnography?)
 Narrative Research Design/ Approach

 Analysing the stories that people live & tell

 Individual stories are the vehicles for making sense of the world
 Narrative: the overarching theme or meaning that connects & gives coherence to
various individual stories- an event/action or series of events/actions, chronologically
connected
 Story: a subset of the former; specific examples of narratives
 interested in a chain of experiences as these are weaved into narrative
 How people make sense of their experiences via by encoding it in narrative
 Seeking the plot, the connection between events, & the important characters
important in this sense-making process
 Narrative Research Design/ Approach

“Narrative research focuses on exploring the life of an individual and is ideally suited to
tell the stories of individual experiences. The purpose of narrative research is to utilize
‘story telling’ as a method in communicating an individual’s experience to a larger
audience. The roots of narrative inquiry extend to humanities including anthropology,
literature, psychology, education, history, and sociology. Narrative research
encompasses the study of individual experiences and learning the significance of
those experiences. The data collection procedures include mainly interviews, field
notes, letters, photographs, diaries, and documents collected from one or more
individuals.” (Renjith et al. 2021: 3)
 Characteristics of Narrative Research Approach

 Individual experience which may be connected to the identities & history of individuals
 Individual`s stories may be collected not only through interviews but also with different
tools including observation, documents, pictures etc.
 The stories may emerge from what the individual told or co-constructed by the
researcher & individual collaboratively (pictures, questions, letters etc.)
 Narrative stories are often turned into a chronology (past-present-future) by the
researcher
 Different analysis
 Thematic-what was said;
 Structural-the nature of telling
 Dialogic-who to story is directed towards
 The context/place is important in describing the stories
 What topics can we examine with narrative
research in Inclusive education?

 First year experience in college

 How students with disabilities perceive & make sense of their educational journeys
 The success of teachers that use innovative inclusive education methods
 International student adjustment in the new cultural and educational context
 The Process - Narrative Research Approach

 Identify the problem

 (is it about capturing detailed stories or experiences of a single individual or the lives of a small number
of individuals?)
 Select one or more individuals who have stories or life experiences to tell, spend sufficient time
with them gathering their stories through multiples types of information
 Determine the relationship between researcher & story teller
 (listener, questioner)
 Collect data through different tools.
 Diary, observation, photos, documents, interviews - record them
 Collect data about the context
 (personal – job, education, family, cultural-race, gender, ethnicity, & historical-time, place)
 Deconstruct &/or retell the data
 (chronology & communication with participants-disassemble & reassemble)
 Report it according to analysis type
 Types of Narrative Research Approach

 Autobiographical
 the researcher writes & records the experiences of another person’s life
 Autoethnography
 written & recorded by the individuals who are the subject of the study
 Life history
 portrays an individual’s entire life
 Personal experience story
 narrative of an individual’s personal experience found in single or multiple episodes, private
situations, or communal folklore
 Oral history
 gathering personal reflections of (historical) events & their causes & effects from one or
several individuals
 Questions to answer when choosing
Narrative Research Approach

 Is the problem about capturing detailed stories or experiences of a single individual

or the lives of a small number of individuals
 Is it possible to identify such a person or small group of people?
 Do we have contextual information about the participants
 Can we as a researcher build a collaborative relationship with the participant(s) to
gather detailed information about their history & experiences
 Which type of narrative research is applicable for our problem?
 Do we have enough time to collect rich data through different tools?
 Case Study

 The aim is to either develop an in-depth understanding of a single case or

explore an issue or problem using the case as a specific illustration
 A qualitative approach in which the investigator explores
 a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems
(cases) over time,
 through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information
(e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual materials, & documents & reports),
 reports a case description & case themes
 Characteristics of Case Study Research
Approach

 Defining the case: a case that can be bounded or described within certain
parameters (single or multiple cases?)

 Case description & rationale behind case selection

 In depth understanding of the case:

 different types of data (interview, observations, field notes, documents)

 Unit of analysis: individual/s or institutions or events

 Themes, specific situations can be uncovered

 Within case-cross case analysis
 Lessons learned at the end
 What topics can we examine with Case Study
research in Inclusive education?

 Impact of inclusive education policy implementation in a school setting: A case of

school X in…

 Parental perceptions & involvement in inclusive education programmes: A case of 10

parents at Y school

 Transition challenges & support for students with disabilities in education: A case of
students with visual impairments/ a case of two public schools in Astana
 Types of Case Study Research Approach

 Single case
 Intrinsic Choosing a case to explore because of its uniqueness
 needs to be described & detailed (e.g. impact of a study abroad programme)
 Instrumental bounded case to explore a specific problem
 a case well-represents the problem (e.g. a school that is innovative in technology
integration in education)
 Multiple case
 Replicating the same process in two different cases in order to understand different
experiences broadly
 Comparative multiple case study: analysis & synthesis of the similarities, differences &
patterns across two or more cases that share a common focus or goal
 Case Study Research Approach process

 Identify the problem

 (is it about in depth understanding of a specific case or a situation that can be uncovered through a
bounded case/ or comparative cases)
 Identify the case
 (purposeful- maximal/unusual/ordinary)
 Extensive data collection with different methods
 (documents, archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation, & physical
artifacts)
 Unit of analysis
 the specific entity, individual, group, organisation, programme, process to focus
 Description & analysis of case; first general & then through specific themes
 Within case analysis followed by cross case analysis (in multiple case studies)
 Draw assertions-lessons- regarding the problem
 Questions to answer when choosing Case
Study Research Approach

 Can we explore the problem by case study design?

 Which type should we choose

(intrinsic/ instrumental- single/multiple/comparative?)

 To what extent are we looking for generalisability?

(case selection/ data collection)

 Can we work on a case that we purposefully selected?

 Are there different data sources for both case description and for the problem investigated?

 Is it possible to work on and with the people this case?

 (ethical issues/ time/ connections)
 Generalisations in Case Study Research
Approach

 Statistical generalisation is interested in generalising from sample to population

 Analytical generalisation in case studies is related to ability to contribute to the

expansion and generalisation of theory (Yin, 2009)

 Can help researchers to understand other similar cases, phenomena or situations,

 i.e. there is a logical rather than statistical connection between the case & the wider
theory (Cohen et al; 2018)

 Can help generalise to a broader theory which can be tested in one or more
empirical cases & can be shown not to support rival, even if plausible, theories
 Grounded Theory

“The discovery of theory from data systematically obtained and analysed in

social research” (Glaser & Strauss, 1967:2)

“A Grounded Theory is one that is inductively derived from the study of the
phenomenon it represents. That is, it is discovered, developed, and provisionally
verified through systematic data collection and analysis of data pertaining to
that phenomenon” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990:23)

“A method for conducting qualitative research that focuses on creating

conceptual frameworks or theories through building inductive analysis from the
data (Charmaz, 2006:187)
 Grounded Theory Research Approach

 Moving beyond description

 Generate or discover a unified theory or an explanation for a process or action
 Theory might help explain the practice or provide a framework for further studies
 Theory is generated in data from participants who have experience
 ‘shaped by the views of a large number of participants` (Creswell, 2013, p.83)
 An evolving understanding of grounded theory from being prescribed to constructivist
 Characteristics of Grounded Theory

 A focus on a process or action to explain it (student support in special schools)

 then proposing a theory driven by actual data from the field

 What is a theory?
 Systematic explanation/understanding of a topic that ties together a whole bunch of facts

 It not only explains those facts, but draw themes/categories & array them by explaining the
relationship between/among them & how the theory works –to make it useful in other
observations
 Characteristics of Grounded Theory

 Memoing- taking notes in each process of the research

 Data collection mainly through interviews

 Theoretical sampling

 Constant comparative data analysis

 Coding around: Initial categories-Core phenomenon-Causal conditions-Strategies-

Contextual and intervening factors- Consequences (Outcomes)
 Types of Grounded Theory

Structured Constructivist
 More positivist  More interpretivist
 No literature review at initial stages  Engaging with the literature throughout the
 The researcher is detached process
 Expected to be more generalizable  Researcher’s subjectivity is present
 Expected to be more contextual and
situational
 The Process

 Is there a need for a theory development regarding the problem? (present theories
might be incomplete or developed in different contexts)
 Questions for participants
 What was the process? How did it unfold?
 What was central to the process (the core phenomenon)?
 What influenced or caused this phenomenon to occur (causal conditions)?
 What strategies were employed during the process (strategies)?
 What effect occurred (consequences)?
 Data collection & analysis are simultaneous
 A proposed theory with categories & relationships among factors is presented in the
end
 This theory then can be tested quantitatively (mixed)
 Grounded Theory Analysis Process

Initial Core Interrelations between Explanations

categories phenomenon the core phenomenon
and its sub- and sub-categories
categories
The Process

Component Description
Iterative research
process
Coding
Constant comparison
Memo Writing
Theoretical sampling
Theoretical saturation
Theory production
The Process
Data collection & analysis phases are concurrent, & inform ongoing sampling
strategies, hypothesis testing, & emergent theory production
Coding is the first analytical step & is used to segment the data whilst
simultaneously labelling it for the purpose of categorising, summarising &
accounting for each piece of data collected
Constant comparison occurs between data & incidents within the data to
extrapolate emergent categories & their properties
Memo writing is a reflective activity that illuminates theoretical notions about the
data
Theoretical sampling is used to select cases that establish links between core
categories & verify understanding of emergent theory
Theoretical saturation occurs when no new ideas about core categories emerge in
newly collected data
The outcome of a GT study is the production of substantive / formal theory, with
emphasis usually on the former
 Document/ Content Analysis

 A qualitative method to systematically analyse documented texts

 to understand the meanings that circulate in texts
 The text & the context
 “the systematic reduction . . . of content, analysed with special attention to the
context in which it was created, to identify themes & extract meaningful
interpretations of data ”

 Examples
 the portrayal of gender in advertising & other media,
 the representation of minority groups in history textbooks,
 the content of news and political programming, both the overt & implied messages
 Types of Documents

 Historical documents
 Transcribed speeches
 Newspapers
 Magazines
 Books
 Blogs, & diaries etc.

 How will you sample it? (Types, dates, content, limitations?)

 The Process

 Identify research problem

 Collect documents

 Determine the unit of analysis

 Coding

 Classifying

 Theme building

 Interpretation & reporting

 Action Research/ Participatory Action Research

 A tool for change & improvement at the local level

 Seeks to change & transform ‘practitioners’ practices, their understandings of their
practices, & the conditions in which they practice’
 Moves beyond positivist, interpretive & critical research, being self-reflexive,
collaborative, political & suitable for dissemination
 Designed to bridge the gap between research & practice
 A small-scale intervention in the functioning of the ‘real’ world & a systematic, close
examination, monitoring & review of the effects of such an intervention, combining
action & reflection to improve practice
 Areas for Action Research/ Participatory Action
Research

 Teaching methods: replacing a traditional method by a discovery method

 Learning strategies: adopting an integrated approach to learning in preference to a
single-subject style of teaching and learning
 Evaluative procedures: improving one’s methods of continuous assessment
 Attitudes & values: encouraging more positive attitudes to work, or modifying pupils’
value systems with regard to some aspect of life
 Continuing professional development of teachers: improving teaching skills,
developing new methods of learning, increasing powers of analysis of heightening
self-awareness;
 Management & control: the gradual introduction of different techniques of class
management;
 Administration: increasing the efficiency of some aspect of the administrative side of
school life
 Steps in Action Research/ Participatory Action
Research

 S1: the identification of the problem

 S2: preliminary discussion & negotiations among the interested parties – teachers,
researchers, advisers, sponsors
 S3: a review of the research literature to find out what can be learned from
comparable studies
 S4: a modification or redefinition of the initial statement of the problem at S1
 S5: selection of research procedures – sampling, administration, choice of
materials, methods of teaching & learning, allocation of resources and tasks
 S6: choice of the evaluation procedures to be used
 S7: the implementation of the intervention itself (over varying periods of time)
 S8: the interpretation of the data; inferences to be drawn; & overall evaluation of the
project
Action Research
 Reflexivity Action Research/
Participatory Action Research

 Reflexivity is central to action research, because the researchers are also the
participants & practitioners in the action research

 (a) data is authentic & reflect the experiences of all participants

 (b) democratic relations exist between all participants in the research;

 The researcher’s views (which may be theory-laden) do not hold precedence over the
views of participants
 Basic Qualitative Research (Merriam & Tesdell, 2015)

 Generic

 Interpretive

 how people interpret their experiences

 how they construct their worlds
 what meaning they attribute to their experiences

 The overall purpose is to understand how people make sense of their lives & their
experiences
 Afternoon session

 Think about your research idea

 How can it be explored through each of these designs?
 Why & and how?

 Philosophical positioning as a researcher (Individual presentations)

 References

BRYMAN, A. (2016). Social Research Methods, (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

CRESSWELL, J. W. (1994). Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage.

CRESSWELLl, J.W. (2008). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches, (3rd ed.).
London: SAGE Publications.

MILES, M. B., & HUBERMAN, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.