VERTEBRATE SKELETAL

SYSTEM

Dr. Krishnakumar V.
Assistant Professor
Department of Life Sciences
Christ University
Bengaluru – 560 029
 The framework of the body,
 Protects and supports the body tissues and internal organs.
 The human skeleton contains 206 bones,
 6 - middle ear (three in each ear)
 femur – largest bone

Skeletal Bone Example

system
Endoskeleton Cartilage bone Vertebrae, ribs, limb bones
Membrane bone Centra of teleosts, sesamoid,
orbitosphenoid of the Amphisbaenia
Exoskeleton Dermal bone Skull roof bones, dentary, clavicle,
gastralia, scale of fishes, osteoderm
 Skeleton Components
 Bone
- mineralized connective tissue,
- contains collagen and calcium phosphate, a mineral crystal.
- provide support and protection for body organs.
 Cartilage
- a form of fibrous connective tissue
- composed of closely packed collagenous fibers - called chondrin.
- provides flexible support for certain structures
 Tendon
- a fibrous band of connective tissue
- bonded to bone and connects muscle to bone.
 Skeleton Components
 Ligament
- a fibrous band of connective tissue
- bones and other connective tissues together at joints.
 Joint
- a site where two or more bones or other skeletal components are joined
 Skeleton Divisions
Bone in human skeleton are divided into two groups.
a) Axial skeletal bones and
b) Appendicular skeletal bones.
An adult human skeleton contains 206 bones

80 126
a) Axial Skeleton

- that run along the medial sagittal plane

(divides the body into equal right and left)
- bones of the skull, hyoid, vertebral
column, and thoracic cage.
- protects numerous vital organs and soft
tissues of the body.
- skull - the brain, vertebral column - the
spinal cord, thoracic cage - the heart and
lungs.
b) Appendicular Skeleton

-Composed of body limbs and structures

that attach limbs to the axial skeleton.
- Bones of the upper and lower limbs,
pectoral girdles, and pelvic girdle
- primary function - for bodily
movement, it also provides protection
for organs of the digestive system,
excretory system, and reproductive
system.
 Bone Function
1) Structure: which provides structure and support for the body.
2) Protection: numerous vital organs and soft tissues of the body, eg.
3) Mobility: in conjunction with skeletal muscle and other skeletal system
components to assist in enabling body movement.
4) Blood Cell Production: Blood cells are produced by bone marrow. Bone
marrow stem cells develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets.
5) Storage: store important minerals and mineral salts, including calcium,
phosphorus, and calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate gives bone its
firmness. Bone also stores fat in yellow bone marrow.
 Bone Cells
- Remodeling.
- There are three main types of bone cells that are involved in this process.
a) Osteoclasts:
- large cells, - have several nuclei
- function in resorption and the assimilation of bone components.
- attach to bone surfaces and use acids and enzymes to decompose bone.
b) Osteoblasts:
- immature bone cells, form bone,
- help to control bone mineralization
- produce the proteins needed for bone formation.
- produce osteoid (organic substance of bone matrix), which
mineralizes to form bone.
c) Osteocytes:
- mature bone cells,
- have long projections that keep them in contact with each other and
with lining cells on the bone surface.
- Osteocytes assist in bone and matrix formation. They also aid in
maintaining a proper blood calcium balance.
Bone Classification
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON
General function of the skull and visceral skeleton:
• these structures require associated protective structures to prevent
them from being damaged
• other structures can be derived from the skull (i.e. antlers and horns)
for combat or for mating displays
• teeth and tusks are also derived from structures related to the skull
Neurocranium (= chondrocranium)
Retained in cartilaginous fishes
Embryonic cartilaginous braincase in
other vertebrates
Dermatocranium. Dermal bones
Splanchnocranium (= visceral
skeleton).
Supports gills (gill arches),
In gnathostomes:
jaws
ear
hyoid apparatus
 The Chondrocranium:
-The chondrocranium is sometimes called the neurocranium and covers the
ventral, lateral and posterior parts of the brain as well as the ear and nose
Parts :
• the chondrocranium is most visible in more primitive species, such as the
cartilagenous fishes
• specific regions, such as the rostrum, denotes the anterior portion of the cranium
• the occipital condyle is in the posterior region of the chondrocranium and
articulates with the notochord/vertebral column
• in more advanced vertebrates, the chondrocranium is later ossified and becomes
a more minor part of the skull
 The Splanchnocranium
- consists of the visceral arches
- visceral arches are the most visible in agnathans
- generally seven visceral arches grow to support the developing pharyngeal
- each visceral arch is a > shaped structure
- modified to form derived structures such as jaws, ears and parts of the
hyoid apparatus and pharyngeal cartilage
 The Dermatocranium
-composed of plates of dermal bone that cover the head and protect the brain
and gills
- Six basic groups of dermal bones
- Facial series
- Orbital series
- Temporal series
- Vault series
- Palatal series
- Mandibular series
 Visceral arches

- Visceral arches are pieces of cartilages or bones that support the

pharyngeal region of vertebrates and also help attach the jaws with the skull.
- typically 7 pairs of visceral arches in vertebrates which modify in different
groups depending upon the presence or absence of gills and type of jaw
suspension.
 Visceral arches (7)

Mandibular arch Hyoid arch Branchial arches

Meckel’scartilage Hyomandibular, Pharyngobranchial
Pterygoquadrate Ceratohyal Epibranchial,
Basihyal Certobranchial
Hypobranchial
Basibranchial
Cyclostomes
- jawless vertebrates,
- primitive vertebrates
- marine or fresh-water vertebrates.

There is no resemblance with the

typical pattern but cyclostomes
possess a splanchnocranium in
which usual cartilages are not
identifiable. The whole pharyngeal
skeleton fuses to form a branchial
basket to support gills.
Elasmobranchs
They contain full set of visceral arches and three unpaired branchial
cartilages called basibranchials. The arrangement is close to basic pattern as
they have 5 pairs of functional gills and skeleton is all cartilaginous.
Elasmobranchs
-7 pairs of U shaped
- Mandibular arch: upper
(palatoquadrate) and lower jaw
(Meckel’s)
- Hyoid arch: 5, basihyal –tongue,
buccal floor, 2 ceratohyal, 2
hyomandibular – bear gill rays,
articulate with cranium and jaws
- Branchial arches: 5 posterior,
support gills, muscular movement,
basibranchial, hypobranchial,
ceratobranchial, epibrabchial,
pharyngobranchial
Bony fishes
Meckel’s cartilage forms articular and becomes part of the lower jaw.
Hyoid arch is modified for the movement of operculum and functioning of
the lower jaw. Symplectic helps in jaw suspension. Last branchial arch
shows sign of degeneration as the number of gills is reduced to 4 pairs.
Bony fishes
-7 pairs of U shaped
- Mandibular arch: upper (palato-
pterygoquadrate) and lower jaw
(Meckel’s), replacing bones, toothed
palatine (olfactory capsule),
metapterygoid, investing bones -
ectopterygoid, endopterygoid,
premaxilla and the maxilla
- Lower jaw: dentaries, angulars &
articulars
Bony fishes
-Hyoid arch: suspensorium and hyoid
cornu; suspensorium – hyomandibular
and symplectic; hyoid cornu- interhyal,
epihyal, ceratohyal, hypohyal, basihyal,
Bony fishes
- Operculum: 4 investing bones,
- Branchial arches: 5 posterior,
support gills, muscular movement,
basibranchial, hypobranchial,
ceratobranchial, epibrabchial,
pharyngobranchial, replacing bones,
Amphibia
- include jaws, hyoid apparatus, columella auris and cartilages of larynx
- Upper jaw: premaxilla and maxilla, teeth, quadrato jugal, quadrato
cartilage,

Premaxilla

Maxilla

Quadrato-jugal
Quadrato cartilage
-Ventral: palatine, pterygoid (maxilla and palatine; parasphenoid and
auditory capsule; quadrato-jugal and quadrate cartilage),

Palatine

Parasphenoid
Squamosal
Pterygoid

Auditory capsule
Amphibia
- Lower jaw: 2 rami, Meckel’s cartilage, angulosplenial, coronary process,
mentomeckelian
- Hyoid: cartilage, 2 alar process in the front, 2 lateral process in the
posterior, anterior cornua joins auditory capsule, thyrohyal -glottis
Amphibia
Larval frogs have 6 visceral arches and the last 3 bear gills. In urodeles having
gills third, fourth and fifth epibranchials support gills while their
basibranchials and ceratobranchials are reduced to two pairs. Hyomandibular
modifies as columella of the middle ear cavity in frogs and toads. The air
breathing hyobranchial apparatus of frogs and toads is made by the fusion of
2nd, 3rd and 4th visceral arches.
Reptiles
- include jaws, suspensorium, hyoid
- Jaws:
- Upper jaw: 2 rami, fused, 9 bones (premaxilla, maxilla, jugal &
quadrate; pterygoid, palatine, transpalatine, epipterygoid, squamosal)
Upper jaw:
- Premaxillae: fused, anterior limit of
the snout, conical teeth, articulate with
the maxillae.
- Maxilla: major portion, perforated by
a number of maxillary foramina, teeth
are pleurodont type,
- Jugal: behind the maxilla, articulates
anteriorly with the maxilla and lacrymal
and on the inner side with the
transverse, but free posteriorly.
- Palatine: roof of the buccal cavity,
Upper jaw:
- Pterygoid: has an anterior palatine
process and a posterior quadrate
process, articulates with the palatine,
transverse, basipterygoid, quadrate,
roof of mouth.
- Transverse: connecting the pterygoid
with the jugal and the maxilla, floor of
the orbit, also called the transpalatine
or ectopterygoid.
- Epipterygoid: also called columella
crani.
Upper jaw:
- Squamosal: form the supra-temporal
arch, and its posterior end bends
downwards to articulate with quadrate,
supra-temporal, parietal and exoccipital.
- Septomaxillary: articulate with
maxillae and nasals.
- Suspensorium: includes quadrate and
squamosal
- Quadrate: obliquely in the postero-
lateral side of the hind region of the
cranium, articulates with the squamosal,
supra-temporal, supra-temporal process
of the parietal and paroccipital process.
Reptiles
- Jaws:
- Lower jaw: 2 rami, articular, angular, supra-angular, coronoid, splenial
& dentary
Lower jaw:
-Articular: posterio rmost bone, posteriorly
terminating into an articular cartilage.
Angular: small splint-like bone fitted in
between the dentary and articular and
perforated by an angular foramen.
Supra-Angular: a flat, elongated,
rectangular bone , carries a pair of
mandibular foramina - mandibular nerves.
Coronoid: conical bone present above the
supra-angular,
Splenial: a flat, irregular membranous bone,
inner side of the dentary.
Dentary: largest bone, distal half portion of
the ramus, a row of 8 to 10 small, conical
mandibular , pleurodont type.
Reptiles
Quadrate and epipterygoid bones of the skull are modifications of
pterygoquadrate, and articular of the lower jaw is a modified meckel’s
cartilage. Hyoid arch forms a small hyoid plate that also extends forward to
support the tongue. One of two ceratobranchials may form the posterior
cornu of the hyoid plate.
Birds
Modification is similar to reptiles except that there is only one cornu of the
hyoid plate that is modified from the third visceral arch.
Mammals
Petrygoquadrate breaks into alisphenoid and incus, the former becomes
part of the skull and the latter joins the ear ossicles. Meckel’s cartilage
modifies into malleus and hyomandibular into stapes of the middle ear
cavity. Larynx of mammals evolved from the fourth and fifth visceral arches.
Thyroid cartilage is a modification of 4th and 5th visceral arches while
arytenoid and cricoid cartilages are modified fifth visceral arch.
 Jaw suspension
-attachment of the lower jaw with the upper jaw or the skull
- There are different ways in which these attachments are attained
depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates.
1. Amphistylic
2. Autodiastylic
3. Hyostylic
4. Hyostylic (=methystylic)
5. Autostylic (=autosystylic)
6. Monimostylic
7. Streptostylic
8. Holostylic autostylic (=craniostylic)
1. Amphistylic
- In primitive elasmobranchs
- no modification of visceral arches and they are made of cartilage.
- Pterygoqadrate makes the upper jaw and meckel’s cartilage
makes lower jaw and they are highly flexible. Hyoid arch is also
unchanged. Lower jaw is attached to both pterygoqadrate and hyoid
arch
2. Autodiastylic
- Upper jaw is attached with the skull and lower jaw is directly
attached to the upper jaw.
- The second arch is a branchial arch and does not take part in jaw
suspension.
3. Hyostylic
- In modern sharks, lower jaw is attached to pterygoquadrate which
is in turn attached to hyomandibular cartilage of the 2nd arch. It is the
hyoid arch which braces the jaw by ligament attachment and hence it is
called hyostylic.
4. Hyostylic (=Methystylic)
- In bony fishes pterygoquadrate is broken into epipterygoid,
metapterygoid and quadrate, which become part of the skull. Meckel’s
cartilage is modified as articular bone of the lower jaw, through which
the lower jaw articulates with quadrate and then with symplectic bone of
the hyoid arch to the skull. This is a modified hyostylic jaw suspension that
is more advanced.

5. Autostylic (=AUTOSYSTYLIC)
- Pterygoquadrate is modified to form epipterygoid and quadrate,
the latter braces the lower jaw with the skull. Hyomandibular of the
second arch transforms into columella bone of the middle ear cavity
and hence not available for jaw suspension
6. Monimostylic
-This type of suspension is a modification of autosystylic
suspension in which quadrate is immovable and not flexible as in
amphibia and many reptiles. Hyomandibular is modified as columella
bone of the middle ear cavity.

7. Streptostylic
- This type is found in snakes, lizards and birds, in which quadrate
bone is movable and flexible at both ends making the jaw highly flexible.
Columella is single bone in the middle ear cavity and is sometimes called
stapes.
8. Holostylic
- type is found in lung fishes and Holocephali. Upper jaw is fused
with the skull and the lower jaw is attached directly with it. Hyoid arch
does not participate in jaw suspension and is a typical branchial arch.
There is no columella bone.

9. Autostylic (=Craniostylic)
Found in mammals, in this type of jaw suspension,
pterygoquadrate is transformed into alisphenoid and incus, while
meckel’s cartilage is changed into malleus and not available for jaw
suspension. Lower jaw is directly attached to the skull bone called
squamosal. Monotremes also possess this type of jaw suspension.