DEVELOPMENT

STUDIES
(DS 121)
Dr. Juliana Ogera ,PhD
2023
What is Development?
Development is a multi-dimensional process that involves a
transformation in structures, attitudes, and institutions as well as the
acceleration of economic growth, reduction of inequality, and
eradication of absolute poverty.
Development studies?
Development studies concern the global challenge of combatting
poverty, injustice, and environmental degradation.
At its simplest, development studies is a social science that examines
social and economic development issues.
Through development studies, we seek to bring a critical perspective to
applied real-world problems, and the policies, programs, and practices
behind these.
Concepts/Models and theories of
development studies
Social development is a process that starts at birth and continues
throughout our lifespan.
It refers to the gradual acquisition of social skills, values, and behaviors
that enable us to interact effectively with others and navigate the
complex social world.
Understanding social development is crucial for promoting positive
social outcomes and addressing social challenges, such as poverty,
inequality, and violence.
Theories of social development
Theories of social development aim to explain how individuals develop
social skills, values, and behaviors throughout their lifespan.
There are several major theories of social development, each of which
emphasizes different aspects of human development and social
interaction.
i. Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
ii. Jean Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory
iii. Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
iv. Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
Erik Erikson psychosocial theory
Erikson proposed that humans go through eight stages of
development, each characterized by a unique psychosocial crisis that
must be resolved in order to progress to the next stage. For example,
during the adolescent stage, the crisis of identity versus role confusion
arises, and individuals must successfully navigate this crisis by forming a
clear sense of self in order to move on to the next stage of
development.
 Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory
Piaget proposed that children's cognitive development progresses
through a series of stages, each characterized by different ways of
thinking and problem-solving. Piaget also emphasized the importance
of social interaction in cognitive development, arguing that children
learn from their peers and adults through social experiences such as
play, exploration, and problem-solving.
Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural. Vygotsky proposed that children's
cognitive development is influenced by social and cultural factors, such
as language, social norms, and cultural values. He also introduced the
concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, which refers to the
range of tasks that a child can perform with the help of a more
knowledgeable other.
Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner proposed that human development is shaped by the
interaction between individuals and various environmental systems,
such as family, school, and community. He also introduced the concept
of the microsystem, which refers to the immediate environment in
which a child lives and interacts with others, as well as the mesosystem,
ecosystem, and macrosystem, which represent increasingly broader
environmental contexts that influence development.
Summary
Theories of social development offer different perspectives on how
social skills, values, and behaviors develop throughout the lifespan, and
highlight the importance of social interaction, cultural context, and
environmental factors in human development.
Models of Social Development
Social development is a complex process that is influenced by a variety
of factors, including genetics, environment, and social experiences.
Understanding the process of social development is crucial for
promoting positive social outcomes and addressing social challenges
such as poverty, inequality, and violence.
• One way to understand social development is through models, which
provide a framework for understanding how social skills, values, and
behaviors develop over time. In this article, we will explore three
common models of social development and their implications for
promoting positive social outcomes.
Social Learning Model
Social Learning Model. This model proposes that social skills, values,
and behaviors are learned through observation, imitation, and
reinforcement. In other words, individuals learn from the social
environment around them, including their parents, peers, and media.
• This model emphasizes the importance of modeling positive social
behaviors and providing reinforcement for desirable behaviors. For
example, children who observe their parents engaging in positive
social behaviors, such as empathy and cooperation, are more likely to
adopt those behaviors themselves. On the other hand, children who
observe negative social behaviors, such as aggression and disrespect,
are more likely to exhibit those behaviors themselves. This model
highlights the importance of providing positive social models and
reinforcing desirable behaviors to promote positive social outcomes.
Bioecological Model

Bioecological Model, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. This model

emphasizes the role of multiple environmental systems in shaping
social development. The model proposes that social development is
influenced by factors at the individual level, such as genetics and
temperament, as well as at the environmental level, such as family,
school, and community. The model highlights the importance of
understanding the dynamic interactions between individuals and their
environments.
• For example, children who grow up in families that provide consistent
and supportive parenting are more likely to develop positive social
skills, values, and behaviors than those who grow up in families that
are inconsistent or unsupportive. Similarly, children who attend high-
quality schools and have access to positive role models in their
community are more likely to develop positive social outcomes. This
model emphasizes the importance of addressing environmental
factors to promote positive social outcomes.
Attachment Theory
Attachment Theory. Attachment theory proposes that the quality of early
attachments between children and their caregivers sets the foundation for
social development. Children who form secure attachments with their
caregivers are more likely to develop positive social skills, values, and
behaviors, while children who experience insecure attachments may
struggle with social relationships. The theory emphasizes the importance
of providing supportive and responsive caregiving to promote positive
social outcomes. For example, parents who respond consistently and
sensitively to their children's needs are more likely to foster secure
attachments, which can promote positive social development. This model
highlights the importance of early intervention to promote positive social
outcomes.
Criticisms and Limitations of Social
Development Theories and Models
i. They tend to overemphasize individual factors, such as genetics or
temperament, while underestimating the role of broader social and
environmental factors, such as poverty, inequality, and
discrimination.
This narrow focus can lead to an oversimplified understanding of social
development that ignores the broader societal factors that can impact
an individual's social outcomes.
To address this criticism, social development researchers need to
account for the complex and interrelated factors that influence social
development, including individual, social, and environmental factors.
i. Another limitation of social development theories and models is
the lack of diversity in the populations studied. Many social
development theories and models have been developed based on
research conducted on Western, middle-class populations. As a
result, they may not fully capture the experiences of individuals
from diverse cultural, racial, or socioeconomic backgrounds.
This lack of diversity can limit the generalizability of these theories and
models to diverse populations. To address this limitation, social
development researchers need to conduct research with diverse
populations and ensure that their models and theories are inclusive
and applicable to diverse populations.
A third limitation of social development theories and models is their
narrow focus on childhood. Some social development theories and
models focus primarily on the early years of life and may not fully
account for the continued social development that occurs throughout
adolescence and adulthood.
This narrow focus can lead to an incomplete understanding of social
development and limit the effectiveness of interventions designed to
promote positive social outcomes. To address this limitation, social
development researchers need to expand their focus beyond childhood
and into adolescence and adulthood to gain a more complete
understanding of social development.
Finally, some social development theories and models may not fully
account for the role of individual agency in social development. In
other words, they may not fully consider the extent to which individuals
can actively shape their social outcomes through their own actions and
choices.
This can limit the effectiveness of interventions that aim to promote
positive social outcomes by not fully accounting for the role of
individual agency. To address this limitation, social development
researchers need to consider the role of individual agency in social
development and design interventions that empower individuals to
take an active role in shaping their social outcomes.
Conclusion

Theories and models of social development have provided significant

insights into the factors that influence social skills, values, and
behaviors over time. However, it is important to recognize the
limitations and criticisms of these theories and models, such as the
overemphasis on individual factors, lack of diversity in the populations
studied, narrow focus on childhood, and limited consideration of
individual agency.
 By acknowledging these limitations and criticisms, social development
researchers can work towards developing more comprehensive and
inclusive models of social development that account for the diversity of
experiences among individuals and the complex interplay of factors
that shape social development. Ultimately, a more comprehensive
understanding of social development can inform the design of effective
interventions aimed at promoting positive social outcomes.
References

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.
Harvard University Press.
Bornstein, M. H. (2014). Handbook of cultural developmental science. Psychology Press.
Lerner, R. M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of
human development. In Handbook of Child Psychology (pp. 1-17). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85(1),
6-20.
Overton, W. F. (2015). Processes, relations, and Relational-Developmental-Systems. Research in Human
Development, 12(3-4), 177-180.
Sameroff, A. J. (2009). The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each
other. American Psychologist, 34(10), 541-561.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard
University Press.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood.
Cornell University Press.
Wood, D., & Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of Psychology,
Employment, poverty, and Poverty alleviation
Definitions
Poverty
Poverty is a condition wherein an individual lacks the financial resources
& and essential conditions for meeting the minimum standard of living.
It refers to the condition wherein a person’s economic condition is so
low that even the most basic needs are not met.

Different Types of Poverty

The two major types of poverty are Absolute Poverty and Relative
Poverty.
Absolute Poverty
• Absolute poverty refers to the condition wherein an individual is bereft of
even the basic necessities, including food, shelter, and clothing to meet the
basic living standards. Introduced in 1990, it identified those living below “a
dollar a day” as being in absolute poverty. In 2015, the World Bank
reconsidered it and reset the poverty line to $1.90 a day.
Relative Poverty
• Relative poverty is the condition in which people lack the minimum amount
of income needed to maintain the average standard of living in their
respective society. Hence, it is a measure of income inequality within a
country
Poverty alleviation
Poverty alleviation refers to the set of measures and government
interventions — both, economic & and humanitarian — to lift people
out of the vicious circle of poverty. It is the prerogative of the
government of a country to ensure the well-being of its citizens by
providing them opportunities to emerge out of poverty.
This can be done by fostering economic growth, which, in turn, will
generate employment; thereby reducing poverty. Hence, a country
needs to have a comprehensive poverty-reduction strategy.
Unemployment
Unemployment refers to the share of the labor force that is without work but
available for and seeking employment.

Tanzania Unemployment Rate 1991-2023

Tanzania’s unemployment rate for 2022 was 2.76%, a 0.02% increase from 2021.
Tanzania’s unemployment rate for 2021 was 2.74%, a 0.04% decline from 2020.
Tanzania’s unemployment rate for 2020 was 2.78%, a 0.57% increase from 2019.
Tanzania’s unemployment rate for 2019 was 2.21%, a 0.01% increase from 2018.
History of Tanzanian Poverty
Historically, Tanzania has been one of the most impoverished countries
in the world. In 2000, 86 percent of Tanzanians were impoverished, but
this number dropped to 28 percent in 2018.
Tanzania reduced poverty by 3.2 percent in 11 years, making it the
country that reduced poverty the most in the last 15 years.
Poverty alleviation strategies in Tanzania
1)Economic Growth
The first strategy focuses on sustainable economic growth, which
includes decreasing inflation and focusing on growing parts of the
economy that have the largest poor population. The employment
and empowerment programs utilized in these strategies focus on
agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and tourism in addition to
macroeconomic growth in exports and imports.
Between 2000 and 2015, Tanzania’s export volume grew from 120
to 272, making it the world’s 130th largest exporter. This
successfully increased Tanzania’s GDP from $13.3 billion to $47.3
billion.
Tanzania’s unemployment rate dropped from 12.9 percent in 2001 to
10.3 percent in 2014, because of the liquid capital that was injected
into Tanzania’s economy, a focus on job creation, and an industrial
transition that opened new jobs. The economic focus of the Tanzanian
government lifted thousands of individuals out of poverty and made it
the seventh-largest economy in Africa
2)The Impoverished Individual
The second strategy focuses on the personal needs of those in poverty.
Poverty reduction efforts seek to increase the quality of life and ensure
that those in poverty have access to social welfare. Efforts concentrated
on education, clean water, sanitation and health services. Because of
these efforts, Tanzania increased the number of individuals who had
access to clean water by 9 percent between 1990 and 2009. In the
same period of time, Tanzania’s health care became more accessible.
As a result, child mortality rates dropped from 162 to 108, infant
mortality rates dropped from 99 to 68 and the rate of malaria
contraction dropped from 40.9 percent to 40.1 percent.
Another poverty reduction strategy focused on education. Tanzania
made education more accessible by increasing funding for education,
bettering its transportation mechanisms (including roads), and
emphasizing vocational education and education for girls. This focus on
education increased school enrollment from 68.8 percent in 2000 to
84.6 percent in 2015.
3)Tanzania’s Commitment to Its People
The third strategy is one of the governmental commitments to the
impoverished Tanzanian people. This included ensuring the
enforcement of the law, the accountability of the government for its
people, and the prioritizing of stability in order to avoid poverty. The
IMF reported that Tanzania has become more accountable to its
people, less corrupt, and has increased citizen participation in
governance, thus ensuring an effective political framework
International participation in tanzania’s poverty reduction strategies
The international community was critical to Tanzania’s successful poverty
reduction. The United States, Tanzania’s largest source of aid, began giving
Tanzania foreign aid in 2006. In that year, the U.S. gave $151.29 million. This
number increased every year, with the U.S. giving Tanzania $633.5 million in
aid in 2015. This aid has consistently gone towards the very areas in which
Tanzania has seen the most improvement: humanitarian aid, governance,
education, economic development and health.

– Denise Sprimont
While Tanzania still has a long way to go until it completely eliminates
poverty, it has made significant progress since the beginning of the
millennium. The poverty reduction strategies of Tanzania, including
economic growth, investment in individuals and infrastructure, and
governance development, have been successful to a great extent.
International aid has consistently been a contributing factor to
Tanzania’s ability to reduce poverty and has successfully targeted the
areas in which Tanzania required the most improvement.
Decentralization in Government and Local Government:
Concepts/Theories of decentralization
Process of Decentralization
Decentralization in Sector Reforms e.g. Govt
Private Sector & Local Govt
Failure & and Success Stories of Decentralization