Computer networks

Unit-1
Data communication Components: Representation of data communication, flow of Networks, Layered architecture, OSI
and TCP/IP model, Transmission Media.Techniques for Bandwidth utilization: Line configuration, Multiplexing –
Frequency division, Time division and Wave division, Asynchronous and Synchronous transmission , XDSL ,
Introduction to Wired and Wireless LAN
Unit-2
Data Link Layer and Medium Access Sub Layer: Error Detection and Error Correction - Fundamentals, Block coding,
Hamming Distance, CRC.Flow Control and Error control protocols: Stop and Wait, Go back – N ARQ, Selective
Repeat ARQ, Sliding Window, Piggybacking.Multiple access protocols: Pure ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA,
CSMA/CD,CDMA/CA
Unit-3
Network Layer: Switching techniques (Circuit and Packet) concept.Logical addressing: IPV4(Header), IPV6(Header),
NAT , Sub-Netting concepts. Inter-Networking:Tunnelling , Fragmentation , congestion control (Leaky Bucket and Token
Bucket algorithm), Internet control protocols: ARP, RARP, BOOTP and DHCP.Network Routing Algorithms: Delivery,
Forwarding and Unicast Routing protocol, Gateway protocols.
Unit-4
Transport Layer: Process to Process Communication, Elements of transport protocol,Internet Transport Protocols:
UDP, TCP, Congestion and Quality of Service, QoS improving techniques
Unit-5
Application Layer: Domain Name Space (DNS), EMAIL, SNMP, Bluetooth.Basic concepts of Cryptography: Network
Security Attacks, firewalls, symmetric encryption, Data encryption Standards, public key Encryption (RSA), Hash
function, Message authentication, Digital Signature. 1.1
2
 Suggested Readings

• Data Communication and Networking, 4th Edition, Behrouz A. Forouzan,

McGrawHill.

• Data and Computer Communication, 8th Edition, William Stallings, Pearson

Prentice Hall India.

• W. Richard Stevens, Unix Network Programming, Prentice Hall / Pearson

Education,

1.3
 Unit-I
Data communication Components:

Representation of data communication

flow of Networks
Layered architecture
OSI and TCP/IP model
Transmission Media

Techniques for Bandwidth utilization:

Line configuration
Multiplexing - Frequency division
Time division and Wave division
Asynchronous and Synchronous transmission
XDSL
Introduction to Wired and Wireless LAN

1.4
Data Communications: Components
● Five components of data communication
● 1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
● 2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
● 3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
● 4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
● 5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

5
Simplified Data Communication Model
● The key elements of this model are:
1. Source - generates data to be transmitted
2. Transmitter - converts data into transmittable signals
3. Transmission System - carries data from source to destination
4. Receiver - converts received signal into data
5. Destination - takes incoming data

6
To be continued …

7
Data Representation
● Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio,
and video.
● Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of
bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols.
● Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as
ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a
binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
● Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image
is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small
dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
● Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is
by nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete.
● Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video
can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a
combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion.
8
Data
●
Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
● Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
● Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken
over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and
CB (Citizens Band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
● Full-Duplex: In full-duplex (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the
capacity of the link: with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur
in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths,
one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided
between signals traveling in both directions. Example: telephone network. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
9
To
●
be continued ..
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

10
Physical Structures:
•Type of Connection
 Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
 Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
•Physical Topology
 Connection of devices
 Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast

11
•Type of Connection:
Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.

1
2
Connection of devices

•The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.
•Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
•The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
•There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

13
14
Mesh Topology :
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated
point-to-point link to every other device.
•A fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2 physical
links to connect n devices
•Complete Topology
•Fully connected Mesh NW
•Don’t have traffic congestion problems
•Special MAC Protocol is not needed here to decide
who should communicate to whom & for how long
•Advantages
•Carries own data. (No Sharing)
•Robust(if one link becomes unusable. it does not
effect the whole system)
•Security and Privacy
•Point to point links make fault identification easy.
•Disadvantages
•Cable length , cost n complexity
•More number of Input ports required Installation
15
& reconfiguration are difficult.
Star Topology:
• Direct point to point link only with central
controller called hub.
•Controller acts like a exchange.
For example: Telephone System, if each telephone
connected physically to all others we need sheer
amount of wiring. That's why we have telephone
exchange in which all phones are connected through
which the connection is established using switching.
• Advantages
•Cheaper then mesh
•Easier to Install ,maintain and reconfigure
•Robust
•Requires less cable
•Easy fault identification
•Disadvantages
•If hub goes down, the entire NW becomes dead.
1
6
Bus Topology:
• A bus topology uses multipoint philosophy.
• A long cable called bus acts as backbone to all nodes
• Nodes are connected to bus cable by drop lines & taps
• Drop line: Connection running between device & maincable
• Tap: It is a connector that connects node with metallic core of bus via drop line
• Advantages
•Easy to install
•Uses less cable than mesh and star.
•Disadvantages
•If a portion of bus breakdown whole bus cannot function.
•Inflexible because we cannot add new nodes to bus, addition of nodes
changes the no of taps and average distance between them

17
Ring Topology:
• Each node is directly connected to its two adjacent neighbors.
• If a node wants to send something to distant node it has to go through many
intermediate nodes. Which acts like repeaters reproducing the incoming bit stream
with full signals on outgoing line.
• Advantages
•Easy to reconfigure & install
•Signal circulate all the time
•If a node not receiving signal for a long time it can issue an alarm
•Fault isolation is easy
•Disadvantages
•Traffic is only in one direction
•If a node in ring fail, the whole ring cannot function

1
8
Hybrid Topology:
• Which uses two or more topologies
• In this case bus and star are used to create hybrid topology.
• A network combine several topologies as sub network linked together in
large topology.

1
9
Categories of Networks
Category into which a network falls is determined by its size.
 Local Area Networks (LANs)

 Short distances
 Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Long distances
 Provide connectivity over large areas
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
 Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

20
Local Area Network-LAN
• The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs)
are:
• Higher data-transfer rates
• Smaller geographic area and
• Lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines.

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Wide Area Network
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image,
audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a
country, a continent, or even the whole world.
• Types of WAN’s: Switched WAN and Point-to-point WAN.
• The Switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router
that connects to another LAN or WAN.
• The Point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV
provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet service
provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.
• WAN may utilize public, leased or private communication devices, usually in
combinations devices and can therefore span an unlimited number of miles.

22
Metropolitan Area Networks
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN
and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the
Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
• A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that
can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.
• Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable
TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data connection to the Internet.
• A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a
high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-
link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and the Internet.
• MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data
rates.

23
OSI Model
● Established in 1947, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards.
● An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced
in the late 1970s. ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
● An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
● The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes
to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
● The OSI model is not a protocol; It was developed as a reference to
be used for all future protocols.
● It is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust, and interoperable. 24
OSI Model: Seven Layers

25
OSI Model: Peer-to-Peer Processes

Interaction between Layers 26

cables and connectors
topology
hardwares
transmission mode
mulitiplexing
encoding

hop to hop
flow control
access control
mac
Frames

27
Physical layer
● This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It helps in the
transmission of data between two machines that are
communicating through a physical medium.
● The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits
(raw bits) from one hop (node) to the next.
● Provides physical interface for transmission of information.
● Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another
on a physical communication medium.
● Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural -
aspects for physical communication.
● Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical
layer specifications.
28
To be continued …
● Functions: The physical layer is concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:
• Representation of the bits
• Data rate: the number of bits sent per second.
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration: Point to point or multipoint configuration.
• Physical topology
• Transmission Mode : Simplex, half duplex or full duplex

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To be continued ..

30
Communication at the physical layer

Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

01
1.
..
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

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Data Link Layer
● The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one
hop (node) to the next.
● The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
transmission facility, to a reliable link and it makes the
physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network
layer).
● Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the
received frames.
● Create and detect frame boundaries.
● Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and
retransmission scheme.
● Implement flow control.
● Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
● Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.
32
To be continued …
● Functions: The Data Link layer is concerned with the
following:
● Framing: Breaking input data into frames (typically a few
hundred bytes) and caring about the frame boundaries and the
size of each frame.
● Physical addressing, each node has its unique address.
● Flow Control: Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with
a slow receiver.
● Error control, normally achieved through a trailer to the end of
the frame.
● Access Control: Determine which device has right to send data
in an multipoint connection.

33
To be continued ..

34
 Communication at the data link layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame

35
Network Layer
● The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network (links).
● The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host.
● Implements routing of packets through the network.
● Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the
source to the destination
● Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
● Handles congestion in the network.
● Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks
(Internetworking).
● The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into
36
To be continued ..
●Functions:
● Logical addressing (IP address)
● Routing, It determines which path the data should take
based on network conditions, priority of service, and
other factors.
● Network congestion Control
● Fragmentation

37
To be continued ..

38
 Transport Layer
● The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of
the entire message.
● Makes sure that the data arrives without errors, in the proper
sequence and in a reliable condition.
● Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the
exchange of data between two processes in different computers.
● Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
● Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
● Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
● Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
● Provides for the connection management.
● Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.

39
To be continued ..
●Functions:
● Port addressing, The network layer gets each packet to the
correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.
● Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into
transmittable segments, each having a sequence number
● Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection-oriented.
● Flow control
● Error control

40
Transport Layer
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

41
 Communication at transport layer
A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment

42
Session Layer
● The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
● The session layer, allows two applications on different computers to
open, use, and close a connection called a session.
o (A session is a highly structured dialog between two
workstations.)
● This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an
end-user’s request.
● Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this
layer.
● This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be
full duplex or half duplex.
● Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that
if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be
43
 To be continued ..
● Functions:
● Dialog control
● It also makes sure the session is orderly, establishing which
node transmits first, how long it can transmit, and what to do
in case of an error.
● It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as

security, that are needed to allow two applications to

communicate over the network.
● Synchronization
● The session layer synchronizes user tasks by placing

checkpoints in the data stream.

● The checkpoints break the data into smaller groups for error

detection. It allows information of different streams, perhaps

originating from different sources, to be properly combined44 or
To be continued ..

45
 Presentation layer
● The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption of data.
● Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be
exchanged between the two communicating entities. i.e; this
layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted.
● Deals with the actual formatting of the data.
● Suppose there are two machines A and B one follows 'Big Endian'
and other 'Little Endian' for data representation. This layer
ensures that the data transmitted by one gets converted in the
form compatible to other machine.

46
 To be continued ..
● Functions:
● Translation: The sending and receiving devices may run on
different platforms (hardware, software and operating system).
Hence it is important that they understand the messages that are used
for communicating. Hence a translation service may be required
which is provided by the Presentation layers
● Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits
contained in the information. Data compression becomes particularly
important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video. Compression ensures faster data transfer. The data
compressed at sender has to be decompressed at the receiving end,
both performed by the Presentation layer.
● Encryption : It is the process of transforming the original message
to change its meaning before sending it. The reverse process called
decryption has to be performed at the receiving end to recover the
original message from the encrypted message. 47
To be continued ..

48
Application Layer
● The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
● This layer provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other
types of distributed information services.
● In other words, it serves as a window through which application processes can
access network services.
● Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level
of OSI model.
● Application layer contains management functions to support distributed
applications.
● Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer, electronic
mail, remote login etc.

49
To be continued ..
● Functions:
● Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the
application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The
user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and
vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
● File transfer, access, and management: This application allows a user to access
files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a
remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a
remote computer locally.
● Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
● Directory services: This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.

50
Communication at application layer
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
51
Summary of OSI Layers

52
TCP/IP Model
● The structure TCP/IP model is very similar to the structure of the
OSI reference model. The OSI model has seven layers where the
TCP/IP model has four layers.
● The Application layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the
Application Layer of Session, Presentation & Application Layer of
OSI model.
● The Transport layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Transport
Layer of OSI model
● The Network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Network
Layer of OSI model
● The Host to network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the
Physical and Datalink Layer of OSI model.

53
TCP/IP Model and OSI Model

54
Functions of the Layers of TCP/IP model:
Host to Network Layer:
● The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what
happens here, except to point out that the host has to connect to the
network using some protocol so it can send IP packets to it. This
protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to
network.
● It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. a well known
example is Ethernet
● A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-area network or a
wide-area network.

55
Network Layer or Internet Layer:
● At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer),
TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
● It holds the IP protocol which is a network layer protocol and is
responsible for source to destination transmission of data.
● The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is an connection-less & unreliable
protocol.
● It is a best effort delivery service. i.e. there is no error checking in IP, it
simply sends the data and relies on its underlying layers to get the data
transmitted to the destination.
● IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is
transported separately. Datagrams can travel along different routes and
can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated. IP does not keep track of
the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive 56
To be continued ..
● Network Layer or Internet Layer:
● IP is a combination of four protocols:
1. ARP
2. RARP
3. ICMP
4. IGMP
1)Address Resolution Protocol:
● ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet
address is known.
● It is used to resolve the physical address of a device on a network,
where its logical address is known.
● Physical address is the 48 bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or
LAN card, Logical address is the Internet Address or commonly
known as IP address that is used to uniquely & universally identify57
a
To be continued ..
2) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol:
● The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to
discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address.
It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first
time or when a diskless computer is booted.
3) Internet Control Message Protocol:
● The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used
by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems
back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.
4) Internet Group Message Protocol:
● The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate
the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

58
Transport Layer:
● Transport layer protocols are responsible for transmission of data running on a
process of one machine to the correct process running on another machine.
● Handles end-to-end communication
● Divides the data into manageable chunks of information (packets)
● Provides reliable communication
● Ensures that all packets are received
● Provides error-free communication
● Uses a checksum to verify data integrity
● Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols:
TCP and UDP.
● IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one
physical device to another.
● UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a
message from a process (running program) to another process.
● A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs59 of
To be continued ..
Transmission Control Protocol:
● The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-
layer services to applications.
● TCP is a connection-oriented, reliable protocol. i.e. a connection is
established between the sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted.
UDP – User Datagram Protocol :
● UDP is a simple protocol used for process to process transmission.
● It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do
not require flow control or error control.
● It simply adds port address, checksum and length information to the
data it receives from the upper layer.

60
Functions of the Layers of TCP/IP model:
Application Layer
● The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session,
presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.
● Many protocols are defined at this layer like File Transfer (FTP),
Electronic Mail (SMTP), Virtual Terminal (TELNET), Domain Name
Service (DNS), HTTP etc.
● The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto
a distant machine and work there.
● The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from
one machine to another.
● Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a
specialized protocol (SMTP) was developed for it.
● Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host names onto their
network addresses.
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●
Differences between OSI and TCP/IP:
OSI
OSI model has been developed by ISO (International
Organization for Standardization).
It is an independent standard and generic protocol used
as a communication gateway between the network and
the end user.
In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a
guarantee for the delivery of the packets.
This model is based on a vertical approach.
OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and Session
layer.
Transport Layer is Connection Oriented.
Network Layer is both Connection Oriented and
Connection less.
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily
replaced as the technology changes.
OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols
very clearly and makes clear distinction between them.
It is protocol independent.
The usage of this model is very low.
It comprises of seven layers:
TCP/IP
It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Agency Network).
It consists of standard protocols that lead to the development
of an internet. It is a communication protocol that provides
the connection among the hosts.
The transport layer does not provide the surety for the
delivery of packets. But still, we can say that it is a reliable
model.
This model is based on a horizontal approach.
TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or
Session layer.
Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and Connection
less.
Network Layer is Connection less.
In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy
In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not clearly
separated. It is protocol dependent.
This model is highly used.
It comprises of four layers: 62
Transmission Media
● Transmission media is a means by which a communication signal is
carried from one system to another
● Transmission medium: A transmission medium can be defined as
anything that can carry information from a source to a destination.
(Or)the physical path between transmitter and receiver.
● Repeaters or amplifiers may be used to extend the length of the
medium.
● Transmission media are located below the physical layer

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Transmission Media
●Computers use signals to represent data.
●Signals are transmitted in form of electromagnetic energy.
●Communication of electromagnetic waves is guided or
unguided.
● Guided media : waves are guided along a physical path (e.g,
twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber).
● Unguided media: means for transmitting but not guiding
electromagnetic waves (e.g., the atmosphere and outer space).
• Guided Media: communication follows an exact path (such as a
wire)
• Unguided Media: communication follows no specific path (such
as a radio transmission)
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Classes of Transmission media

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Guided Media
●Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from
one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Types:
1. Twisted-Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Fiber-Optic Cable

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Twisted-Pair Cable
● A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together.

● The signal is transmitted through one wire and a ground reference is transmitted
in the other wire.
● Typically twisted pair is installed in building telephone wiring.

Why is Twisted Pair “twisted”?

When two wires run in parallel:
• There is a high probability that one of them is
closer to the source of electromagnetic radiation
than the other
• One wire tends to act as a shield that absorbs
some of the electromagnetic radiation
• Thus, the second wire receives less energy.
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Twisted-Pair Cable
● Twisted Pair – Applications
● Most common medium
● Telephone network
● Between house and local exchange (subscriber loop)
● Within buildings
● To private branch exchange (PBX)
● For local area networks (LAN)
● 10Mbps or 100Mbps
● Advantages
● Less expensive
● Easy to work with
● Disadvantages
● Low data rate
● Short range
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●
Twisted-Pair (Unshielded vs Shielded)
● The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP).
● IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair
(STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise.

● Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

● Ordinary telephone wire
● Less expensive
● Weak immunity against noise and interference
● Suffers from external EM interference
● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
● An extra metallic sheath on each pair
● Relatively more expensive
● Provide better performance than UTP
● Increased Data rate
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● Increased Bandwidth
Categories of Unshielded Twisted pair cables

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Unshielded Twisted pair Connectors

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Coaxial Cable
● Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable.
● Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
● The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.
● This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover.

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Categories of Coaxial Cable

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Coaxial Cable- Applications
● Television (TV) signals distribution
● Ariel to TV
● Cable TV

● Long distance telephone transmission

● Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
● Being replaced by fiber optic

● Short distance computer systems links

● Local area networks (LAN)
● Metropolitan area network (MAN)

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Fiber-Optic Cable
● A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals
in the form of light.
● Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can carry information at
frequencies in the visible light spectrum.
● Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
● A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense
glass or plastic.
● The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being refracted into it.

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Fiber-Optic Cable
● A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals
in the form of light.
● Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can carry information at
frequencies in the visible light spectrum.
● Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
● A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense
glass or plastic.
● The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being refracted into it.

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Fiber-Optic Cable: Advantages and Disadvantages:
● Advantages:
● Higher bandwidth
● Less signal attenuation
● Immunity to electromagnetic interference
● Resistance to corrosive materials
● Light weight
● Greater immunity to tapping
● Disadvantages:
● Installation and maintenance.
● Unidirectional light propagation.
● Cost.

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Fiber-Optic Cable: Applications
● Backbone networks
● Cable TV – backbone
● LAN
● 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
● 100Base-X

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Unguided Media: Wireless
● Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to
as wireless communication.

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

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Unguided Media: Propagation
● Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in three
ways:
● Ground propagation,
● Sky propagation, and
● Line-of-sight propagation

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: Propagation Methods
● Characteristics of Ground-wave propagation are as follows:
i. Follows contour of the earth
ii. Can Propagate considerable distances
iii. Frequencies up to 2 MHz
iv. Example
a. AM radio
● Characteristics of Sky Propagation are as follows:
i. Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth
ii. Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and earth‘s surface
iii. Reflection effect caused by refraction
iv. Examples
a. Amateur radio
b. CB radio
● Characteristics of Line of Sight Propagation are as follows:
i. Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight
a. Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by ionosphere
b. Ground communication – antennas within effective line of sight due to refraction
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UNGUIDED MEDIA: Bands
● The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is
divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: Types
● There are three types of Unguided Media
(i) Radio waves
(ii) Micro waves
(iii) Infrared.
Radio Waves:
● Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1GHz are normally called
radio waves.
● Radio waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits radio waves they are
propagated in all directions. This means that sending and receiving antenna do not have to
be aligned. A sending antenna can send waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna.
● Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky mode, can travel long distances.
This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
● Radio waves particularly those of low and medium frequencies can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage . It is an advantage because; an
AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is the disadvantage because we cannot
isolate a communication to first inside or outside a building.
● The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the microwave
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Micro waves :
● Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
● Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits microwaves they can
be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to
be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of
antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
● Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted
antennas needs to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to
be very tall, the curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not
allow two short towers to communicate using microwaves, Repeaters are often
needed for long distance communication
● Very high frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
● Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
● Parabolic dish antenna and horn antenna are used for this means of transmission

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: Types
Micro Waves:
Types of Antenna
● A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola.
● Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at
angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus. The
parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them
to a common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be
possible with a single-point receiver.
● Outgoing transmissions are broadcast through a horn aimed at the dish. The
microwaves hit the dish and are deflected outward in a reversal of the receipt path.
● A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up
a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel
beams by the curved head. Received transmissions are collected by the scooped
shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down
into the stem.
Applications:
● Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, 85
Infrared :
● Infrared signals frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400 THz which
can be used for short range communication.

● Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.

This helps to prevent interference between one system and another.
Infrared Transmission in one room cannot be affected by the infrared
transmission in another room.

● Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a

closed area using line-of-sight propagation.

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