Postharvest handling of Grain

1. Drying

Advantage of drying:
o Permits long time storage of grain without deterioration
o Permits continuous supply of product through out the year
o Permits early harvest which reduces field damage and
shattering loss
o Makes products available during off season

Purpose of drying

Extend shelf life by:

o reduction of water activity
oReduction of storage and transportation costs
Table 1. Maximum Recommended Moisture Contents of Selected Clean, Sound Grains for Storage with Aeration in

• -----------------------------------------
• Short term Long term
• (less than (more than
• 6 months) 6 months)
-----------------------------------------
Barley 14 % 12 %
Corn 15.5 13
Edible Beans 16 13
Flax seed 9 7
Millet 10 9
Oats 14 12
Rye 13 12
Sorghum 13.5 13
Soybeans 13 11
Non-Oil Sunflower 11 10
Oil Sunflower 10 8
Wheat 14 13
Water content

• Water can be found in food grain as follows:

 Free water
 Bound water

Free water is easiest to remove during drying. Bound

water is more difficult to remove due to internal forces.
As more water is removed from foods or feed, the more
energy intensive will the process be. It is not necessary
to remove all the water to prevent grain spoilage.
 Moisture content
• The moisture content of a crop can be
described by two methods:
A. ‘wet basis’ (wb) and is calculated as follows
(%mcwb)=

B. Dry basis moisture content(db)

• For example, if 100 kg of moist grain is dried
and loses 20 kg of water, the moisture content
is:
Equilibrium moisture content
• Any hygroscopic material (including grain) has its
own characteristic balance (or equilibrium)
between the moisture it contains and the water
vapour in the air with which it is in contact. This is
known as the equilibrium moisture content (EMC).

• When food grains containing a certain amount of

moisture are exposed to air, moisture moves from
the grain to the air, or vice versa, until there is a
balance between the moisture in the grain and in
the air.
 Moisture movement in atmosphere and in grain
More moisture than grain grain reacts by
absorbing moisture from
the air

Air with

Less moisture than grain grain gives moisture to the air

Sample
weight
(g)

Time (min)
Factors that affects the rate of grain drying

• Airflow rate,
• air temperature and
• air relative humidity influence drying speed.
In general, higher airflow rates, higher air
temperatures and lower relative humidity
increase drying speed.
Types of Dryers
Dryers can be categorized in different ways:
 natural air,
 low temperature, and
 high temperature dryers.
 batch, automatic batch and continuous flow
dryers.
Natural drying
• The traditional methods used by farmers for
drying grain rely on natural air movement to
reduce moisture content to a safe level for
storage.
• In addition, they may utilize the extra drying
capacity gained by exposing the produce to the
sun.
• With good ventilation through the store, the grain
can be harvested just after it is ripe (around
30 percent MC for maize) but most methods allow
some of the drying to take place naturally while
the crop is still standing in the field.
 Low temperature
• Low temperature drying refers to drying grain using little or
no additional heat. Drying takes place in a drying zone which
advances upward through the grain.

• Drying may take several weeks depending on the airflow rate,

climatic conditions and the amount of water to be removed.
• It requires enough airflow to complete drying within the
allowable storage time.
• A perforated floor is recommended for all in-bin drying. Since
air does the drying, it is imperative that air reaches all the
grain.
 Grain Storage
• While considerable losses can occur in the
field, both before and during harvest, the
greatest losses usually occur during storage.
• The basic objective of good storage is to
create environmental conditions, which
protect the product and maintain its quality
and its quantity, thus reducing product loss
and financial loss.
Loss in quantity
• Loss of weight of the foodstuffs due to it being
eaten by insects, rodents and bird.
These weight losses are not always visually
apparent.

For example, some insects will eat only the

centers of grain kernels so, even though the
volume of the grain may appear to remain the
same, there can be considerable weight loss.
Quality related losses
• Losses of this type can be nutritional or
chemical.
• They may be caused by contamination with
toxic molds. Pests that selectively eat a part of
foodstuff (such as the nutritious germ of the
grain) will reduce the value of the foodstuff as
a whole.
Storage Environment

• Most developing countries are located in the tropics, often in the

area of rainfall and humidity. These conditions are ideal for the
development of microorganisms and insects which cause high levels
of deterioration of crops in store.
• Food grain losses during storage are the result of the biological,
chemical and physical damage.

In order to reduce the amount of food lost, the environment in the

store need to be controlled so as to lower the possibility of:
 Biological damage by insects, rodents
 Chemical damage through rancidity development and flavor
changes, etc
 Physical damage through crushing, breaking etc…
 Good storage thus involves controlling temperature, moisture, light,
pests and hygienic conditions.
Pests
Insect pests
• The main purpose of insect control is to prevent
insects entering the storage containers.
• The containers should be closed tightly; baskets
may be smeared with mud to seal mud.
• Access to the store by insects such as ants and
termites can be prevented by building the store on
poles, which are treated with covered with fat or
water oil.
• Surrounding the supporting poles with a layer of
sieved wood ashes, and sinking the poles in to
ground soaked with waste oil, will also deter insects.
Control of pests in store

• Wide ranges of natural product are stored in traditional storage

systems, but nowadays, these are tending to be replaced by
commercial pesticides and poisons.
• Great care should be taken over the selection of such chemicals and
advice should be thought.
 Rodent poisons should be placed in containers and never allowed
to come in to contact with the food. The poisons should be changed
regularly to avoid the pests developing resistance.
• Other poisons make the pests very thirsty and so they leave the store
in search of water. In view of the dangers associated with rodent
poisons, if their use is properly controlled, considerations should be
given to simpler traditional measures such as the use of cats.
• The use of chemicals or traditional methods, while important is no
replacement with good store management and regular inspection.
Insect control
• Losses caused by insects:
(i) Weight loss: as insects develop they will feed on the
produce. Losses vary with the commodity, for grain and
legumes.
(ii) Loss in quality and market value. Damaged grains will
have reduced market value.
(iii) Promotion of mould development. ‘Respiration’ water
from insects leads to mould formation in poorly ventilated
stores.
(iv) Reduced germination in seed material. Many insects
prefer to eat the embryo because it is the most nutritious
part of the grain.
(v) Reduced nutritional value. Removal of the grain embryo
Insect control techniques
• Sanitation: Do not mix new grain with old. Old, infested
material should be removed or thoroughly fumigated. Clean the
storage structures and machinery, and disinfect bags and baskets
by sunning or chemical treatment.
Large structures will require chemical treatment, while smoke
may be adequate for small stores.
• Natural resistance : Crop varieties differ in their susceptibility
to storage pests.
• Hermetic storage: In airtight conditions, reduced oxygen and
increased carbon dioxide will arrest insect and mould
development.
• Chemical control: The traditional method for preserving the
crop in storage is to treat the grain with smoke and special plants
or, when stored in closed containers, to mix the grain with ash or
In most cases, chemical control involves the use
of an insecticide, which can be applied to the
produce in the form of:
 dust
 spray
 fumigants
• In addition to killing the insects, all
insecticides are toxic to mammals to varying
degrees.
 Toxicology during grain storage
• In the field, grains are predominantly
contaminated by those moulds requiring high
water activities (at least 0.88 aw) for growth,
whereas stored grains will support moulds
which grow at lower moisture levels.
• The major mycotoxin-producing moulds
include certain Aspergillus, Fusarium and
Penicillium species
Storage management
Storage management is important for all types of
storage functions. For bag storage, the three main
points are:
1. Prevent damp (moisture) from the floor and
walls.
• Damp from the roof is avoided through proper
ventilation
2. Stack the bags properly to allow:
• Optimal use of space.
• Ease of inspection of produce for rodents and
insects.
3. Control insects and rodents
• Make sure the building is rodent-proof.
• Treat the building and protect against pests.
• Keep the warehouse clean.
• Close all holes in doors, roof, etc. where pests
can enter.
• Repair cracks in walls where pests can hide.
• Remove and destroy any infested residues that
could contaminate newly introduced produce.
 Types of Storage

The size and type of a storage facility is likely to

be dictated by:
total volume of crop/produce to be stored;
the unit cost of various types of storage;
the form in which the crop/produce is stored,
i.e. cob maize versus shelled maize, or bagged
wheat versus bulk wheat.
Above ground storage Sacks
• Wherever grain is grown on a commercial basis,
buying agencies often issue empty sacks to
producers, so that they may be filled on the farm.
 the bagged grain must be kept off the ground to
prevent spoilage.
 the sacks of grain should be stacked on
waterproof sheeting, away from walls, in a
rodent proofed barn.
 The need for chemical methods of pest control
should not arise if the storage period is short
Gotera
warehouse
silos
Underground storage
• Below ground structures were often preferred
due to the greater security, especially during
more turbulent periods, since the store can
be more easily hidden.
• This method of storage is used in dry regions
where the water table does not endanger the
contents.
Generally, during grain storage :
the grain must be kept dry;
the grain should be kept at a uniform
temperature;
the grain should be protected from insect
attack;
rodents and birds should be excluded.