Failure Modes in Pavements

(Flexible Pavement )
What is a failure?

Failure of a typical civil engineering structure is defined as break or

fracture. This usually happens when applied load exceeds the maximum
allowable load.

Surface distress is "Any indication of poor or unfavourable pavement

performance or signs of impending failure; any unsatisfactory
performance of a pavement short of failure"
Type of failure modes
 Rutting
 Cracking: Longitudinal
 Fatigue cracking: Single crack in the wheel path
Alligator cracking
 Seasonal (frost heave) cracks
 Joint construction cracking
 Edge (verge) cracking: Transversal (thermal) cracking
Pattern cracks
 Block Cracking
 Joint Reflection Cracking
 Potholes
 Bleeding
 Ravelling
 Stripping
 Corrugation and shoving
 Segregation
 Patching
 Polishing
 Depressions
 Slippage cracking
 Water bleeding and pumping
Rutting
Surface depression in the wheel path.
Pavement uplift (shearing) may occur along
the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly
evident after a rain when they are filled with
water.
Fatigue Cracking In thin pavements, cracking initiates at the
bottom of the HMA layer where the tensile
stress is the highest then propagates to the
surface as one or more longitudinal cracks.
This is commonly referred to as "bottom-
up" or "classical" fatigue cracking. In thick
pavements, the cracks most likely initiate
from the top in areas of high localized
tensile stresses resulting from tire-pavement
interaction and asphalt binder aging (top
down cracking).
Transversal (thermal) cracking
Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's centre line or lay-down
direction. Usually a type of thermal cracking.
Frost heave/thaw (action) cracking
Frost action can be quite detrimental to pavements and refers to two separate but
related processes:

Frost heave: An upward movement of the subgrade resulting from the expansion of
accumulated soil moisture as it freezes.

Thaw weakening: A weakened subgrade condition resulting from soil saturation as

ice within the soil melts.
Block cracking Transversal/block/frost
Interconnected cracks that
heave cracking
divide the pavement up into
rectangular pieces. Blocks
range in size from
approximately 0.1 m2 to 9 m2.
Block cracking normally
occurs over a large portion of
pavement area.
Potholes
Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the
pavement surface that penetrate all the way
through the HMA layer down to the base
course. They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes
are most likely to occur on roads with thin
HMA surfaces (25 to 50 mm) and seldom occur
on roads with 100 mm or deeper HMA
surfaces.
Joint Reflection Cracking
Cracks in a flexible overlay of a
rigid pavement. The cracks occur
directly over the underlying rigid
pavement joints. Joint reflection
cracking does not include reflection
cracks that occur away from an
underlying joint or from any other
type of base (e.g., cement or lime
stabilized).
Corrugation and shoving
A form of plastic movement typified by
ripples (corrugation) or an abrupt wave
(shoving) across the pavement surface.
The distortion is perpendicular to the
traffic direction. Usually occurs at points
where traffic starts and stops (corrugation)
or areas where HMA abuts a rigid object
(shoving).
Depressions Patching
An area of pavement that has been
Localized pavement surface
replaced with new material to repair the
areas with slightly lower
existing pavement. A patch is considered
elevations than the
a defect no matter how well it performs.
surrounding pavement.
Depressions are very
noticeable after a rain when
they fill with water.
Polishing (polished aggregates) Ravelling

Areas of HMA pavement where the The progressive disintegration of

portion of aggregate extending above an HMA layer from the surface
the asphalt binder is either very small or downward as a result of the
there are no rough or angular aggregate dislodgement of aggregate
particles. particles.
Stripping Slippage cracking
The loss of bond between aggregates
and asphalt binder that typically begins Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks
at the bottom of the HMA layer and generally having two ends pointed
progresses upward. When stripping into the direction of traffic.
begins at the surface and progresses
downward it is usually called ravelling.
The below shown photo shows the
surface effects of underlying stripping.
Bleeding
A film of asphalt binder on
the pavement surface. It
usually creates a shiny, glass-
like reflecting surface that can
become quite sticky.
Water bleeding
Water bleeding (below shown photo)
occurs when water seeps out of joints or
cracks or through an excessively porous
HMA layer.
Pumping
Pumping occurs when water and fine material is ejected from
underlying layers through cracks in the HMA layer under
moving loads.
Suggested Remedies for the failures

The failures of the flexible pavement can be reduced by using modifiers

like rubber or polymer

Many types of polymers are in use as bitumen modifiers. They can be classified into
five groups

1. Thermoplastics
(Poly-Ethylene, Poly-Propylene, Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA), PVC)

2. Natural and synthetic rubbers

(SBR, Natural Rubber, Poly Butadiene, Poly Isoprene, Butyl Rubber, Crumb Rubber)

3. Thermoplastic Rubbers
(Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS), Styrene Isoprene (SIS), EPDM)

4. Epoxy Resins

5. Mixed systems
Many types of polymers are in use as bitumen modifiers. They are

1. Acrylic Rubber

2. Butadiene Rubber

3. Butyl Rubber

4. Chlorobutyl

5. Chlorinated Polyethylene Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene

6. Epichlorhydrin Ethylene Acrylic

7. Styrene Butadiene Rubber

8. Tetra-flouroethylene/Propylene
Marshall Stability test results for unmodified and modified
bitumen

0% PEG 0.5% PEG

Unit Unit
% of Stability Flow Stability Flow
weight weight
Bitumen (kN) (mm) (kN) (mm)
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
3.0 9.770 2.442 22.993 10.250 2.517 22.997
3.5 11.107 2.608 23.382 11.728 2.683 23.394
4.0 12.017 2.867 23.834 12.656 2.942 23.846
4.5 11.441 2.858 23.607 12.069 3.025 23.610
The below shown figures are the results of unmodified and modified test at 3, 3.5, 4 and
4.5% bitumen. Here Poly Ethylene Glycol (PEG) is used as modifier. The percentage of
modifier is of 0.5%
Stability (kN) Stability (kN)
13.000
13.000
Stability (kN)

Stability (kN)
12.000 12.000

11.000 11.000

10.000 10.000
9.000
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 9.000
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Bitumen (%)
Bitumen (%)

0% PEG 0.5% PEG

Flow (mm) Flow (mm)

3.100
3
3.000

Flow (mm)
2.8 2.900
Flow (mm)

2.800
2.6
2.700
2.4 2.600
2.500
2.2 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 Bitumen (%)
Bitumen (%)

0% PEG 0.5% PEG

 Unit weight (kN/m3) Unit weight (kN/m3)
Unit weight (kN/m3)

24.000 24.000

Unit weight (kN/m3)

23.600
23.500
23.200
23.000
22.800
22.500
22.400 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Bitumen (%)
Bitumen (%)

0% PEG 0.5% PEG

Calculation of Quantities
The quantities required for Marshall Specimen are calculated

Diameter of specimen = 0.101m

Height of specimen = 0.063m

Volume = = 5.047 x 10-4 cub. m

1.2 kg ------> 5.047 x 10-4 cub. M

X ------> 1 cub. M

Quantity of aggregate require for 1 cub. M = 1.2/(5.047 x 10 -4 )

= 2400kg
Out of all aggregates coarse aggregate is of 55% = 2400 x .55 = 1320kg
Fine aggregates = 2400 – 1320 = 1080kg

Bitumen @ 3% = 2400 x 0.03 = 72kg

PEG for 3% bitumen @ 0.5% PEG = 72 x 0.005 = 0.36kg
When 0.5% PEG is used for 3% bitumen
Bitumen required = 72 – 0.36 = 71.64kg
PEG required = 0.36kg
Calculation of Quantities and cost of material required for construction of 100m
length, 0.3m thickness and 3.75m width

Volume of road = 100 x 0.3 x 3.75 = 112.5 cub. m

Coarse aggregate required for the road = 1320 x 112.5 = 148500kg

Fine aggregate required for the road = 1080 x 112.5 = 121500kg
Bitumen @ 3% = 72 x 112.5 = 8100kg
Bitumen @ 3% with 0.5% PEG = 71.64 x 112.5 = 8059.5kg
PEG @ 0.5% = 0.36 x 112.5 = 40.5kg

Cost
Coarse aggregate = 148500 x 0.70 = Rs. 103950
Fine aggregate = 121500 x 1.00 = Rs. 121500
Bitumen = 8100 x 140 = Rs. 1134000
Bitumen with 0.5% PEG = 8059.5 x 140 = Rs. 1128330
PEG = 40.5 x 1300 = Rs. 52650
 Quantity (kg) Total Price (Rs.)
Sl. Price per
Item
No. 0% PEG 0.5% PEG kg (Rs.) 0% PEG 0.5% PEG
Coarse
148500 148500 0.70 103950.00 103950.00
1 Aggregate
Fine
121500 121500 1.00 121500.00 121500.00
2 Aggregate
3 Bitumen 8100 8059.5 140.00 1134000.00 1128330.00
4 PEG 0 40.5 1300.00 0.00 52650.00
 Quantities of material required for construction of 1 cub. m
Type of material @ 0% PEG @ 0.5% PEG

Aggregates (kg) 1320 1320

Fillers (kg) 1080 1080
Bitumen @ 3% (kg) 72 71.64
PEG (kg) 0 0.36

Quantities and cost of material required for construction of

100m length, 0.3m thickness and 3.75m width
@ 0% PEG @ 0.5% PEG
Type of material
Quantities (kg) Cost (Rs.) Quantities (kg) Cost (Rs.)
Aggregates 148500 103950 148500 103950
Fillers 121500 121500 121500 121500
Bitumen @ 3% 8100 1134000 8059.5 1128330
PEG 0 0 40.5 52650
Total Cost (Rs.) 1359450 1406430
Life (Years)* 20 30
Cost comparison

The cost of 1 km road is approved at Rs. 4.75 crore for upgradation to 4-lane for
flexible pavement which includes all costs (land, prep, gravel, sand, labor, machinery,
drainage, lighting and bitumen).
Here Rs 3,50,000 for the bitumen alone for unmodified pavement.

Where as for modified pavement the cost is going to be increased by Rs. 30,000 to
40,000 thousand per km only.
References
*John B. Johnston and Gayle King (2008) “Using Polymer Modified Asphalt
Emulsions in Surface Treatments ”, A Federal Lands Highway Interim
Report.

Mena I. Souliman and Kamil Kaloush (2011) “Assessment of the Extended

Fatigue Life for Rubber and Polymer Modified Asphalt Mixtures Using
Flexural Bending Beam Fatigue Test ”, Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering,
Volume 5, No. 2, pp – 210-215.