Information Technology For

Managers
Evolution of Computer
First Generation Computers

• The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device,
which was called a vacuum tube.
• These computers were very heavy and large
• . These weren’t very reliable and programming on them was a tedious task as they used
low-level programming language and used no OS.
• First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control purpose.
• They were too bulky and large that they needed a full room and consume a lot of
electricity.

• Some main first-generation computers are mentioned below.

 ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John
V. Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been cumbersome, and large, and
contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von Neumann.
It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
 UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly.
Characteristics of First-Generation
Computers
Second Generation Computers
• Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky
vacuum tubes. Another feature was the core storage. A transistor may be a device
composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a sign or opens or closes a
circuit.

• Transistors were invented in Bell Labs. The use of transistors made it possible to
perform powerfully and with due speed. It reduced the dimensions and price and
thankfully the warmth too, which was generated by vacuum tubes. Central
Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language, and input, and output units
also came into the force within the second generation.

• The programming language was shifted from high level to programming language
and made programming comparatively a simple task for programmers. Languages
used for programming during this era were FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and
COBOL (1959).
FORTRAN: Formula Translation
• Was created by John Backus in 1956.
• It is the very first high-level programming language.
• It was fundamentally designed to write high-performance computing programming and is suited explicitly to
computational computing & scientific applications requiring detailed math calculations in numerical computing.
• Translating math equations into code was the primary motive behind the architecture.
ALGOL: Algorithmic Language
• It is a computer programming language that was created in 1958 by an international committee of the Association of
Computing Machinery (ACM) chaired by Alan J. Perlis of Carnegie Mellon University for publishing algorithms and
performing calculations.
COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language
• It is imperative (more than one process used for creating the program) c, C++, Java,
• Procedural (uses set of commands and functions) BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code),PASCAL(Programming Language named for Blaise Pascal)
• Object-oriented(organizes software design around data, or objects, rather than functions and logic) PYTHON.
• A compiler is a computer program that takes other computer programs written in a high-level (source) language and
converts them into another program, machine code, which the computer can understand.
• COBOL takes data from a file or database, processes, and outputs it. In short: COBOL takes data in, computes it, and
outputs it afterwards.
Characteristics of Second-Generation Computers
Input, Output & Storage Technologies
• A computer system mainly comprises a central processing unit,
memory, input/output devices, and storage devices. All these
components function together as a single unit to deliver the desired
output.
• Input: Inputs are the set of instructions that are given to the
computer.

• Output: Output is the results that come after processing the inputs.
• Input Devices
The devices which are used to input the data and the program in the
computer are known as "Input Devices‘’ or that help in giving the
instructions to the computer are called “Input devices‘’.
E.g.: Keyboard, Microphone
• Output Devices
The devices that help in getting and viewing the desired results are
called output devices.
 In other words, we say that a device that is used to send data from a
computer to another device is called an output device.
E.g.: monitor, printer, speaker etc. these are the devices where we
see the results.
• Input Devices v/s Output Devices:
List of Input Devices
• Keyboard • Electronic White Board
• Mouse • Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
• Microphone • Optical Character Reader (OCR)
• Webcam • Magnetic Ink Character Reader
(MICR)
• Graphics Tablets
• Optical Pen
• Barcode Readers
• Gamepads
• Joystick
• Scanner
List of Output Devices List of Input Output Devices
• Monitor • Camera
• Speaker • Pen drive
• Projector • Modems
• Printer • Hard drives
• Visual Display Units • Touch Screen
• Headsets • Head and Ear Mount
• Glasses/ Lenses equipment’s
• Facsimile (FAX)
• Photo copier
Storage technology

Random access memory (RAM). But its storage capacity and memory
retention are limited.
Read-only memory (ROM) is, as the name suggests, the data can only
be read but not necessarily edited. They control a computer's basic
functionality.
Advances computer memory with
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Dynamic random-access memory is a type of
semiconductor memory that is typically used for the data or program
code needed by a computer processor to function. DRAM is a common
type of random- access memory (RAM) that is used in personal
computers (PCs), workstations and servers.
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
SDRAM is the main short-term memory in most contemporary computers and
handles all the data that is in current use. Current data used by the operating system
(OS), browser, and software applications is stored in RAM for quick and easy access.

Your computer relies on its RAM to complete routine processes, like loading apps,
browsing the internet, streaming, and gaming.

SDRAM has the speed to switch quickly and efficiently between multiple tasks for
maximum utility of your device. Data can be pulled from the long-term storage
(ROM) and made available in RAM so it can be accessed without extensive
searching.

The random- access capability means that SDRAM can get to any area of data within
the module equally fast. Its proximity to and intimate connectivity with the
processor enables tasks to be actioned almost instantaneously.
• Modern computers, or terminals, connect to storage devices either
directly or through a network. Users instruct computers to access
data from and store data to these storage devices. However, at a
fundamental level, there are two foundations to data storage: the
form in which data takes and the devices data is recorded and stored
on.
• Data storage devices
Direct area storage (DAS)
• Direct area storage also known as direct-attached storage (DAS), is as
the name implies.
• This storage is often in the immediate area and directly connected to
the computing machine accessing it. Often, it's the only machine
connected to it.
• DAS can provide decent local backup services, too, but sharing is
limited.
• DAS devices include floppy disks, optical discs—compact discs (CDs)
and digital video discs (DVDs)—hard disk drives (HDD), flash drives
and solid-state drives (SSD).
Network-based storage (NBS)
• Network-based storage allows more than one computer to access it
through a network. making it better for data sharing and
collaboration.
• Its off-site storage capability also makes it better suited for backups
and data protection.
• Two common network-based storage setups are network-attached
storage (NAS) and storage area network (SAN).
• NAS is often a single device made up of redundant storage containers
or a redundant array of independent disks (RAID).
• SAN storage can be a network of multiple devices of various types,
including SSD and flash storage, hybrid storage, hybrid cloud storage,
backup software and appliances, and cloud storage.
• Here are how NAS and SAN differ:
Types of storage devices
SSD and flash storage
• Flash storage is a solid-state technology that uses flash memory chips for writing and storing
data.
• A solid-state disk (SSD) flash drive stores data using flash memory. Compared to HDDs, a solid-
state system has no moving parts and, therefore, less latency (delay), so fewer SSDs are needed.
• Since most modern SSDs are flash-based, flash storage is synonymous with a solid-state system.
Hybrid storage
• SSDs and flash offer higher throughput (measure of how many units of information a system can
process in each amount of time) than HDDs, but all-flash arrays can be more expensive.
• Many organizations adopt a hybrid approach, mixing the speed of flash with the storage capacity
of hard drives.
• A balanced storage infrastructure enables companies to apply the right technology for different
storage needs. It offers an economical way to transition from traditional HDDs without going
entirely to flash.
Cloud storage
• Cloud storage delivers a cost-effective, scalable alternative to storing files to on-
premise hard drives or storage networks.
• Cloud service providers allow you to save data and files in an off-site location that
you access through the public internet or a dedicated private network connection.
• The provider hosts, secures, manages, and maintains the servers and associated
infrastructure and ensures you have access to the data whenever you need it.
Hybrid cloud storage
• Hybrid cloud storage combines private and public cloud elements.
• With hybrid cloud storage, organizations can choose which cloud to store data.
For instance, highly regulated data subject to strict archiving and replication
requirements is usually more suited to a private cloud environment.
• Whereas less sensitive data can be stored in the public cloud.
• Some organizations use hybrid clouds to supplement their internal storage
networks with public cloud storage.
• Backup software and appliances
• Backup storage and appliances protect data loss from disaster, failure or fraud.
• They make periodic data and application copies to a separate, secondary device
and then use those copies for disaster recovery.
• Backup appliances range from HDDs and SSDs to tape drives to servers, but
backup storage can also be offered as a service, also known as backup-as-a-
service (BaaS).
• Like most as-a-service solutions, BaaS provides a low-cost option to protect data,
saving it in a remote location with scalability.
Computer Assisted Control and Automation

• The application of technology, programs, robotics or processes to

achieve outcomes with minimal human input.
• Automation includes using various equipment and control systems
such as factory processes, machinery, boilers, heat-treating ovens,
steering, etc.
• Examples of automation range from a household thermostat to a
large industrial control system, self-driven vehicles, and warehousing
robots.
• Automation technology comprises all processes and work equipment
that enable plants and systems to run automatically. These include
machines, apparatus, equipment and other devices. Human
intervention is minimal.
• The engineering discipline takes a multidisciplinary approach and
encompasses both mechanical and electrical engineering.
• The aim of automation is to enable plants and machinery to
automatically perform work processes efficiently and at a low error
rate.
• Various levels of automation can be achieved, depending on the
complexity of the systems involved. The higher the degree of
automation, the less intervention needs to be performed by humans
to control the process.
Benefits of automation
• They relieve people from having to perform dangerous and physically exhausting
activities.
• Machines perform tiring routine jobs.
• It is not without reason that advances in automation are associated with population
growth.
• This increase in the number of people brings with it a rise in the demand for high-
quality goods, which among other things, is also what brought about mass production.
• In addition to taking the strain off people, automation has several other benefits.
• Machines can operate continuously with minimal rest period and lag with a high level of
performance, and their tempo considerably surpasses the speed of manual processes.
• Moreover, automation improves the quality of products and reduces personnel costs.
Functions of automation technology

Measurements
Control
Regulation
Communication

Measuremnent
• The measurements are generally performed with the aid of sensors.
• They can detect and determine the prevailing physical and chemical conditions,
such as humidity, pressure and heat.
• A distinction is made between passive and active sensors. A wide range of such
detectors has been specially developed for automated systems.
Control
• Digital control of systems in the field of automation is performed
using a flexible programmable logic controller (PLC).
• Control commands are transmitted to the system via actuators, such
as motors, valves or magnets.
• Such systems used to contain permanently wired connection-
programmed controllers, in which any changes to the programming
necessitated modifying the connections.
Regulating
• Regulating consists of continually measuring the parameter in
question and comparing it with a target value.
• If the measurement deviates from requirements, an adjustment is
made. The procedure is controlled by computer.
Communication
• Communication automation is an essential part of any businesses’
operation processes.
• Whether dealing with clients, distributors, suppliers, or others, it is
important to have a fast and reliable system to automate
communication for your business.
• Communication automation systems work through a centralized
interface to create, manage, and send different forms of repetitive
communications to the desired targets.
• This is done in bulk, saving your employees and business the trouble
of doing everything manually.
Delhi Metro Automation
• India's first-ever Indigenous Automatic Train Supervision System
(i-ATS) has been developed by a joint team of DMRC and Bharat Electronics Limited
(BEL) with 336 vehicles of 6-8 coaches.
• CBTC (Communication Based Train Control) based signalling system for metro
railway since the ATS is an important sub-system of the CBTC signalling system. ATS
is a computer-based system, which manages train operations.
• Automated Sensor and Announcement system in trains and stations
• Driverless train operation (DTO)
• Flexibility in train running
• Reduced human intervention
• No manual checking process
• Parking and moving of trains on required lines and stations
• Collection of fare through smartcard swapping.
• Electronic locking of doors which prevents accidents and mishaps.
• Route maps and LCD Displays in Coaches.
• This Automation is supported by Siemens Transportation System.
DIGITALLY CONTROLLED CAR ENGINES
• In Automobile Industry ECU (Electronic Control Units) is an embedded
electronic device, digitally controlled engines.
• It reads signals from sensors embedded in different parts e.g.(Engine,
• Assisted and/or automation technology provide vehicles with feature enhancements that may operate
independently, simultaneously, or conditionally.

• Level 0: No Automation indicates that a vehicle does not have any assisted or automated driving
technologies
• Level 1: Assisted Driving Automation indicates that a vehicle has one or more assisted driving technologies
such as adaptive cruise control and/or parking sensors that don’t work together.
• Level 2: Partial Automation indicates that a vehicle has two or more assisted driving technologies that work
together simultaneously.
• Level 3: Conditional Automation indicated that a vehicle has limited automation driving functionality under
certain conditions to make certain decisions without human judgement.
• Level 4: High Automation indicates that a vehicle has full automation driving technology functionality under
most conditions and select conditions requiring human oversight such as a blizzard or navigating unrouted
roads.
• Level 5: Full Automation indicates that a vehicle has full automation technology and require no involvement
of humans.
Autonomous Vehicle Technology
• AVs (autonomous vehicles) use a combination of technologies and sensors to sense the roadway, other vehicles, and
objects on and along the roadway
• Autonomous vehicle technology enables an autonomous driving system to work in sync to maintain full control over the
vehicle and sense exterior objects. Alike humans, autonomous vehicles must have the capacity to rationalize judgements,
process sensory information, and make decisions for smart responses to external factors. Autonomous vehicle technology
makes this possible.
• LiDAR technology (light detection and ranging) allows autonomous vehicles to make calculated decisions with its ability to
detect objects in its immediate environment. It truly enables the power of vision.
• Camera technology that uses complex algorithms to interpret information collected through the system.
• RADAR (radio detection and ranging) technology uses radio waves to determine the distance between object and
obstacles.
• Infrared sensor technology detects objects in the dark or other hard to see conditions.
• INS (inertial navigation system) technology works with GPS to improve location accuracy and determine vehicle position,
orientation, and velocity.
• DSRC (dedicated short-range communication) technology works with V2I and V2V systems to send and receive information
on current road conditions, accidents, traffic volume.
• Prebuilt mapping technology relies on predefined road maps to limit the available routes that can be taken.
• Ultrasonic sensor technology provides information at a short distance to assist with parking and backup warning.
• GPS (global positioning system) technology uses satellites to relay the vehicle’s position information.