Concentration refers to how much a substance is dissolved per unit volume of the solution

Strength refers to how easily an acid or an alkali dissociates when dissolved in water
 An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions ( when it’s dissolved in water

(acid only show the properties of acids when they are dissolved in water)
Reaction of acids
An base is a substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt and water only

Bases
(metal oxides and hydroxides)

Bases that are soluble in water Bases that are insoluble in

(alkalis) water

Examples Examples

• Sodium oxide, Na2O • Magnesium oxide, MgO

• Potassium oxide, K2O • Magnesium hydroxide,
• Sodium hydroxide, NaOH Mg(OH)2
• Potassium hydroxide, KOH • Zinc oxide, ZnO
• Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 • Copper (II) oxide, CuO
• Ammonia hydroxide, NH3 (aq) • Zinc hydroxide, Zn(OH)2
Reaction of bases
• Gives off ammonia gas when heated with ammonium salts

• React with some salt solution to form precipitates of metal hydroxides

• Neutralization reaction with acids

Precipitation Method

Filtration Method

Titration Method
 E

−𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝐴𝑔 𝑁𝑂 3 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 (𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑠)

𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂 3 (𝑎𝑞)+ 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)→ 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠)+ 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂 3 (aq)

− filter , wash residue with cold ionised water ∧dry with filter papers

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 2 :𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑢 𝐶𝑙2 , use 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅

2 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞)+𝐶𝑢𝑂 (𝑠)→CuCl 2 (aq)+ H 2 O

𝐻 𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞)+𝐶𝑢 ( 𝑂𝐻 ) 2(𝑠)→ 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙 2(𝑎𝑞)+ 𝐻 2 𝑂
𝐻 𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞)+𝐶𝑢 𝐶𝑂 3 (𝑠)→ 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙 2(𝑎𝑞)+ 𝐻 2 𝑂 +𝐶𝑂 2
−𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 , 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 ,𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 h𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒→ 𝑛𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
− filter , perform crystalisation on filtrate ( evaporate¿ saturation , heat ∧allow ¿ cool , filter , wash∧dry )
 E

−𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑁𝑎 𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ( 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 )

− 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑤h𝑒𝑛 𝑡h𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠h𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

−𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑡h𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡h𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (𝑎𝑞)+ 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞)→ 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞)+ 𝐻 2 𝑂 (𝑙)

𝑖𝑛 𝑡h𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘

−𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 , 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 , 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 , 𝑤𝑎𝑠h 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑦 )