Unit 4 Casting

Casting: Steps involved in casting, advantages

of casting, pattern, difference between pattern
and casting, pattern allowances, material used
for patterns, molding sand, sand mould making
core, types of cores, defects of castings,
melting furnace(Cupola), casting process and
its applications.
METAL CASTING PROCESSES
Sand casting – Sand moulds - Type of patterns – Pattern materials –
Pattern allowances

Types of Moulding sand – Properties – Core making – Methods of

Sand testing – Moulding machines –Types of moulding machines
Melting furnaces – Working principle of Special casting processes –
Shell – investment casting – Ceramic mould – Lost Wax process –
Pressure die casting – Centrifugal casting – CO2 process

Sand Casting defects.

Metal Casting Process
Manufacturing
• Manufacturing in its broadest sense is the process of converting raw materials
into useful products.
• It includes
i) Design of the product
ii) Selection of raw materials and
iii) The sequence of processes through which the product will be manufactured.
Casting
Casting is the process of producing metal parts by pouring molten metal into the
mould cavity of the required shape and allowing the metal to solidify. The
solidified metal piece is called as “casting”.
Unit 4 Casting
 Casting process
• Casting is 6000 year young process.
• The plant where casting is made is called
‘Foundry’.
• Foundry engineering deals with process of
making castings in moulds prepared by
patterns.
Foundry…
The whole process of making castings is classified in 5
stages

1. Pattern making

2. Moulding and core making

3. Melting

4. Metal handling and pouring/casting

5. Fettling (cleaning and finishing of casting)

6. Testing and inspection

Except pattern making, all other stages to
make/produce castings are done in foundry shop
 chaplet

Mold
cavity
 Pattern making
Definition :
A pattern may be defined as an element(similar to
the part being cast, replica) used for making cavity
or impression in the mould into which molten metal
is poured to produce a casting.
It is not exact replica of part to be cast. It
is slightly larger than the part due to various
allowances like shrinkage allowance, machining
allowance etc.
-It is the physical model of the casting used to make the
mould. Made of either wood or metal
-The mould is made by packing moulding sand,
surrounding the pattern.
-When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the
mould cavity. This cavity is filled with metal to become
the casting.
- If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns
called ‘cores’, are used to form these cavities.
 Pattern materials
I) Wood :
White pine, Mahogany, Teak, Deodar
Shisam , Kail, Cherry, Maple, beach,etc.

II) Metals:
Steel, C.I., Brass, Al & its alloys
White metal (tin base alloys)
 III) Plastics
• Compositions based on epoxy, phenol
formaldehyde & polyester resins
• Polyacrylates
• Polyethylene
• Polyvinyl chloride most commonly used cold
curing plastics based on epoxy resins & acrylates
IV) Gypsum (POP)
V) Wax
VI) Rubber
Wood
Characteristics:
Light in weight
Easily available & inexpensive
Good workability
Suitable for gluing & joining
Easy to repair
 Limitations
• Wooden pattern is first required to be made to
serve as master pattern which forms the mould
into which plastic resin is poured. Moulds may
be made from rubber plastics, metals or plaster
of paris(mostly used)
 Metals
Advantages :
– More durable and accurate in size than wooden
patterns
– Resistant to wear, abrasion, corrosion & swelling
– Not affected by moisture so retain their shape
– Resistant to rough handling & hence do not warp
– Good machinability, dimensional accuracy and
stability, good surface finish
 Plastics
Advantages
– Economy in material & labour cost
– Lighter, stronger & highly corrosion resistant than
wooden patterns
– No moisture absorption
– Smooth surface of patterns
– Less sticking of sand to patterns as compared to wood
– Strong & dimensionally stable
 Wax
– Exclusively for investment castings
– Normally blends of several types of waxes are used
like paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees wax
– Normally wax patterns are formed by injecting semi
liquid or liquid wax into split die.
– The die is kept cool by circulating water around it. As
the wax sets on cooling the die parts are separated &
wax pattern is taken out
 Plaster of paris (gypsum)
• It can be easily cast into intricate shapes and
can be easily worked also
• It has high compressive strengths
 Factors to be considered for selection of
pattern materials
1) Number of castings to be made
2) Less- cheaper material , More- costlier material
3) Desired dimensional accuracy & surface finish
4) Nature of moulding process: sand casting-wood,
investment casting- wax
5) Method of moulding i.e. hand or machine
6) Shape, size & complexity of casting
7) Probability of design change, chances of future
orders etc.
 Pattern allowance
Definition: The difference in dimensions of casting & pattern are due
to the various allowances considered while designing pattern for
casting. They are:These are the allowances which are usually
provided in a pattern.
shrinkage or contraction allowance: The various
metals used for casting contract after solidification in the
mould. ...
Draft allowance.
Finish or machining allowance.
Distortion or camber allowance.
Rapping or shaking allowance.
a) Liquidus contraction- for drop of
temperature from pouring temperature to
Liquidus temperature

b) Solidifying contraction- for drop of

temperature from Liquidus to solidus

c) Solid contraction- for drop of temperature

from solidus to room temperature
Shrinkage allowance:
• Most of the metals used in casting work contract during
cooling from pouring temperature to room temperature.
This contraction takes place in 3 forms:
• This is a positive allowance provided on the pattern to
compensate the material lost in machining or finishing of
certain surfaces marked on drawing
• The amount of machining allowance depends on
1) Kind of material(metal)- [ferrous/non ferrous]
Ferrous metal- more allowance due to rusting tendency
2) Size & shape of casting – large & slender
casting need more

3) Type of machining operation

4) Moulding method (large for hand moulding

compared to machine moulding)

5) Casting method/condition

6) Degree of finish required

 Machining allowances of various metals
Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)
Cast iron Up to 12 0.12
12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25

Cast steel Up to 6 0.12

6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30

Non ferrous Up to 8 0.09

8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16
 Draft allowance/ Taper allowance
• While taking the pattern out of the mould there
is possibility of damaging of edges and vertical
surfaces of mould
• To reduce the chances of damaging of edges &
surfaces the vertical surfaces of pattern are
inclined or tapered, called as draft allowance
• This draft allowance is expressed in terms of
mm/m or in degrees/side
The amount of draft depends upon

1) Length of pattern in vertical direction(depth)

2) Moulding method

3) Mould material

4) Type of surface- more on internal surface than

external
 Rapping/Shake allowance
• For ease of removal of pattern from the mould
it is rapped or shaked so that surface is free
from sand
• This slightly increases size of mould & hence
casting. To compensate this a small negative
allowance is provided in pattern
• This allowance is insignificant in small &
medium sized castings. But small correction of
pattern size is done for large castings
 Types of patterns
• Factors affecting choice of pattern are
o Number of castings to be produced
o Size and complexity of shape of casting
o Type of moulding method to be used

Following types of patterns are commonly used

o Solid or single piece
o Two piece or split pattern
o Multipiece pattern
o Match plate pattern
o Gated pattern
o Skeleton pattern
o Sweep pattern
o Pattern with loose piece
o Core & drag pattern
o Follow board pattern
o Segmental pattern
 Solid pattern
• Made out of one piece and has no joints
• Cheapest but requires lot of manual operations
like gate cutting providing runners & risers etc
• Depending on shape can be moulded in one or
two boxes
 Two piece or split pattern
• Due to certain design solid pattern offers
difficulty in moulding & withdrawal of pattern. In
such cases the split pattern is recommended
• The 2 parts of split pattern are joined at parting
line by means of dowels
 Multipiece pattern
• For more complicated designs the pattern is made
in more than 2 parts to facilitate easy moulding &
withdrawal of pattern
 A skeleton pattern
• For very large, easy to shape castings. When few numbers are to
be made, solid patterns are uneconomical
• In such cases a pattern consisting of wooden frame & strip is made
(called skeleton), is filled with loam sand & rammed.
• The surplus sand is removed by means of stickle.
• For symmetrical pipe like parts, only half pattern will serve the
purpose of moulding both halves
• Ex. Boiler shells, chimney, huge pipes etc.
 Pattern with loose piece
• Some patterns usually single piece, have loose
pieces for ease of withdrawal from mould
• These pieces form integral part of pattern
during moulding
• After the mould is complete the pattern is
removed, leaving the pieces in sand which are
later withdrawn through the cavity of the
mould
 Sweep pattern
• Advantageously used for preparing moulds of
large symmetrical casting particularly of circular
cross section like, Boiler shells, bells etc.
• Results in large saving of time, labour & material
• Shape of cavity obtained by rotating contoured
sweep about a spindle mounted in sand in a base
• After removal of sweep & spindle the hole is
manually filled, separately prepared core is placed
in mould, gates are cut to make mould ready for
pouring
 Segmental pattern
• Used for preparing moulds of large circular castings
avoiding use of solid pattern of exact size
• In principle similar to sweep pattern but the
difference is that a sweep pattern is given a
continuous revolving motion to generate the desired
shape whereas the segmental pattern is a portion of
solid pattern itself & mould is prepared in parts by it
• It is mounted on pivot & is moved to next position
till part is ready
• Ex. Rings, wheels, rims, gears etc.
 Match plate pattern
• It is a split pattern with cope & drag portions
mounted on opposite sides of a plate called match
plate
• The gates & runners are mounted on match plate
so that very little hand work is required
• The match plate can have many patterns of same
or different castings
• Aluminium is preferred to make the pattern due to
its lightness and cheapness.
• More than one piece can be cast at a time.
 Gated pattern
• It is one or more loose patterns having
attached gates and runners
• Since gates and runners are not to be hand cut,
time required is less
• Suitable for small castings in mass production
Core making: Cores are placed into a mould cavity to
form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the empty
space is filled with molten metal and eventually
becomes the casting.

Moulding: Moulding is nothing but the mould

preparation activities for receiving molten metal.
Moulding usually involves: (i) preparing the
consolidated sand mould around a pattern held within
a supporting metal frame, (ii) removing the pattern to
leave the mould cavity with cores.
Mould cavity is the primary cavity.
Melting and Pouring: The preparation of molten metal
for casting is referred to simply as melting. The molten
metal is transferred to the pouring area where the moulds
are filled.

Cleaning: Cleaning involves removal of sand, scale, and

excess metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale
are removed to improved the surface appearance of the
casting.
Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line
fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for
defects and general quality is performed.
Making a simple sand mould

1) The drag flask is placed on the board

2) Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board

3) Drag half of the pattern is located on the mould

board. Dry facing sand will provide a non-sticky
layer.

4) Moulding sand is then poured in, to fill the drag

completely.
5) Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by means of
hand rammers. Peen hammers (used first close to drag
pattern) and butt hammers (used for surface ramming)
are used.

6) The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be

too hard or soft. Too soft ramming will generate weak
mould and imprint of the pattern will not be good. Too
hard ramming will not allow gases/air to escape and
hence bubbles are created in casting resulting in defects
called ‘blows’. Moreover, the making of runners and
gates will be difficult.
7) After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is
levelled/removed with a straight bar known as strike
rod.

8) Vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of

the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the
removal of gases during pouring and solidification.
Done by vent rod.

9) The finished drag flask is now made upside down

exposing the pattern.
10) Cope half of the pattern is then placed on the drag
pattern using locating pins. The cope flask is also
located with the help of pins. The dry parting sand is
sprinkled all over the drag surface and on the pattern.

11) A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located

at some distance from the pattern edge. Riser pin is
placed at an appropriate place.
12) Filling, ramming and venting of the cope is done
in the same manner.

13) The sprue and riser are removed and a pouring

basin is made at the top to pour the liquid metal.

14) Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.

15) Runners and gates are made by cutting the

parting surface with a gate cutter. A gate cutter is a
piece of sheet metal bent to the desired radius.
16) The core for making a central hole is now
placed into the mould cavity in the drag. Rests in
core prints.

17) Mould is now assembled and ready for

pouring.
 Important Casting Terms
Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or
bottom, in which the mould is formed. Depending upon the
position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is referred
to by various names such as drag – lower moulding flask,
cope – upper moulding flask, cheek – intermediate
moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The
mould cavity is made with the help of pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two
moulding flasks that makes up the mould.
Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without
losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of
silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate
proportions.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mould
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings

Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and

generally baked, which is used to create openings and
various shaped cavities in the castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of
the mould into which the molten metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from

the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In many cases
it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is

carried from the sprue to the gate.

Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters

the mould cavity.
Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside
the mould cavity to take care of its own weight and
overcome the metallostatic force.

Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to

feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known
as “feed head”.

Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of

air and gases.
 Function/characteristics
• Prepare cavity of desired shape & size
(to produce mould)
• It may carry additional projections called core
prints, to produce seats for cores (if casting
requires cores)
• Runners, gates and risers may form a part of
pattern
• The pattern establishes the parting line of parting
surfaces in the mould
 Cores can be used to extend mould projections to create extra mould sections, or to block out and
create negative drafts. Complex castings can involve the use of multiple cores .

Cores are produced by blowing, ramming or in

heated processes, investing sand into a core box.
The finished cores, which can be solid or hollow,
are inserted into the mould to provide the
internal cavities of the casting before the mould
halves are joined.
• Properly finished patterns with smooth
surfaces can avoid or reduce casting defects

• A pattern is used to position a core before

ramming of moulding sand
CORE MAKING :-

A core is a body of refractory material (sand or

metal) which is set into prepared mould before
closing and pouring it, for forming holes , recesses ,
projections , undercuts and internal cavities.
Core characteristics
Good dry sand cores should have the following
characteristics:
1. Good dry strength and hardness after baking
2. Sufficient green strength to retain the shape before
baking
3. Refractoriness
4. Surface smoothness
5. Permeability
6. Lowest possible amount of gas created during the
pouring of casting
7. Good collapsibility
Essential qualities of core :-
The cores are subjected to more thermal &
mechanical effects than molding sand because they are
surrounded from all sides (except at the ends ) by molten
metals. Hence, core sand should have high dry strength ,
surface strength, refractoriness, permeability and
sufficient collapsibility.

Strength can be improved by proper selection of kind

of sand and good binder.

Collapsibility is essential to avoid formation of cracks

in casting after cooling . It can be improved by using
oil as binding material. Metal cores are less frequently
used.
Core baking
• After cores are made they are taken to ovens for baking
• Baking removes moisture and hardens core binders
• generally core sands are poor conductors of heat and
hence heat penetrates slowly into the interior sections of the
cores
• In a core having thin and thick sections, the thin sections
will be over baked, while thick sections will be optimally
baked
• Over baking of cores will result in destroying the binders
and hence core will be just a heap of sand
• cores that are not baked fully will create an excess of gas
and cause blows in castings
Types of cores :-
The cores are usually classified according
to position in mould as under.
1.Horizontal core :-
- most commonly used
- usually placed at parting line
2. Vertical core :-
- fitted with vertical axis.
- two ends of core seats in cope and drag
- maximum portion of core is supported in drag.
3. Balanced core :-
- used when blind holes are to be produced
along horizontal axis
- Length of core seat is more to prevent
falling of core in mould.
4. Hanging / Cover core :-
- no support at bottom . Entire core is contained in
drag only.
- dry sand cores can be suspended to cope by
fastening wires or rods.
5. Wire core / stop off core
- used when whole is desired at position above or
below parting line.
- one side of core remain flush with inner surface
of mould thus this acts as stop off.
 Back surface has taper for its easy location.
Core Boxes:
Def..: A core box is essentially a type of pattern made of
wood or metal into which sand is rammed or packed to
form core.
Types of core boxes:
1. Half core boxes: To prepare two halves which are
cemented later to form complete core.
2. Dump core box:
used to prepare complete core in it . Generally
rectangular cores are prepared in these boxes . In
construction it is similar to a half core box.
3. Split core box:
It is made in two parts which are joined by means of
dowels to form the complete cavity for making the
core.
 4. Stickle type core box:
Stickle is often used when a core with an irregular
shape is required. Core is produced by striking off
the core sand from top of the core box with a piece
called stickle board.
5. Rh-Lh. Box:
Rh- Lh core boxes are necessary when two-halves
cores made in same box cannot be pasted together to
form entire core. The core halves made in these two
boxes are pasted to form a core.
6.Gang core box:
For production of large no. of cores, several core
cavities are rammed in single operation.
7. Loose piece core box:
Same core box can be used to prepare two halves
by keeping the loose pieces.
Gating System:
It refers to all the passage ways through which
metal enters a mould cavity. Requirements of gating
system:

i) Minimum turbulence of aspiration of mould gases

during flow of metal to prevent sand erosion of gas pickup.
ii) Facilitate directional solidification towards the riser
during metal flow by proper establishment of temperature
gradients on mould surfaces.
iii) Well regulated flow of metal in cavity ( complete filling
of mould within shortest possible time)
iv) minimum excess of metal should be left in gates and
risers.
v) Prevent entry of loose sand, oxide and slag in
mould cavity.
vi) Avoid erosion of mould walls.

These requisites can be achieved by:

1. Controlled pouring
2. Use of proper pouring equipment.
3. Pouring metal at proper(specific) temperature
4. Correct design of spruce, runner and gates
Parts of gating systems:
1. Pouring basin:
The main purpose of the pouring basin is to establish
proper flow system as rapidly as possible .
It may made of core sand or metal and may be cut in the
cope of sand mould.
Functions:
To make it easier for ladle operator to direct the flow of
metal from crucible to spruce.
To maintain flow rate of metal.
To reduce turbulence at spruce entrance
To help in separating slag and dirt from metal before
entering the spruce.
2. Sprue: The vertical passage for the cope and
connecting the pouring basin through the runner or gate is
called the sprue.
Requirements for sprue size:
a. The spruce must be small enough for the pourer to
keep it full during the entire pouring operation and the
metal to enter the mould cavity at a velocity that avoids
turbulence.
b. The sprue must be large enough for the mould cavity to
fill completely without lapse or misrun
 Sprue sizes vary from 10 mm2. For work below 12kg.
poured weight to 50 mm2 for heavy castings.
The base of the sprue is usually enlarged and made
deeper than the runner called as sprue well. It serves as a
cushion to falling weight of a metal and absorbs its kinetic
energy. The width and depth of sprue well are about 1 ½
times those of runner.

Runners:
In the large castings, molten metal is usually
carried from the sprue base to several gates around the
cavity through a passage way called the runner.
Gates:
 The gate is passage that finally leads molten metal
from runner into mould cavity.
 The location and size of gates are so arranged that
the mould can be filled in quickly with a minimum
amount of cutting of mould surfaces by the flowing of
metal.
 The gates should be placed so as to avoid the
development of cracks after cooling.
 The gate connection should be located so that they
can be removed readily without damaging casting.
Types of Gates: The gates are classified according to
position in mould cavity.
1) Top gates
2) Bottom gates
3) Parting gates
Top gates Bottom gates Parting gates
1) Top gates:
- Molten metals enters the cavity from top.
- since the molten metal falls directly in mould
cavity, the mould should be hard and strong enough
to resist erosion by dropping metal.
- The proper temperature gradients are formed
(hot metal at top ) to achieve proper solidification.
Advantages of top gate:
1) simplicity of molding.
2) low consumption of additional metal.
3) Achievement of proper temperature gradient.
Limitations:
•Erosion of mould surface due to dropping liquid .
•More chances of oxidation due to splashing of metal.
•More possibility of turbulence and air entrapment .
•Not suitable for non ferrous casting (Al & Mg)
because of tendency of dross formation

Application:
•For gray C.I.
•For castings with heavy bosses (like railway driving
wheels), centers and hollow cylinders.
•For moulds made of refractory materials.
2) Bottom Gates :
- made in bottom side of cavity in drag portion.
- used to minimize turbulence & prevent mould
erosion.
- directional solidification is not achievable.
Advantages:
1. Minimum splashing ,reducing chances of
oxidation.
2. Minimum turbulence & metal erosion as compared
to top gate.
3. Quality of cast surface is good.
Limitations:
1. May result in incomplete mould filling due to metal
flow choke off ( as freezing take place at bottom)
2. Involves greater complexity of molding.
3. Creates unfavorable temp. gradient making it difficult
to achieve directional solidification.

Applications:
1. employed for steel castings in order to reduce
erosion & gas entrapment .
2. to prevent splashing.
3. side gate or Parting line gate:
- metal enters the cavity at the parting line.
Advantages:
1. Simple to construct (even by pattern itself)
2. Less time taking and produce good results when
drag is not deep.
3. Best compromise between bottom & top gate.
4. Promotes directional solidification when it is used as
riser.

Limitations:
1. when P.L is not near bottom of mould cavity or drag
is deep. Results in turbulence.
2. May result in erosion or washing of mould.
RISERING OF CASTINGS:
A riser is hole cut or molded in cope to permit the molten metal
above the highest point in castings. The functions of riser are :
•To enable pourer to see the metal as it falls in mould cavity.
•To facilitate ejection of steam, gas and air from mould cavity.
•To serve as feeder to feed the molten metal in to the main
castings to compensate for its shrinkage.
Requirements of an effective riser
it should have sufficient volume as it should be the last part
of casting to freeze.
it should facilitate directional solidification towards riser.
it must be completely cover the sectional thickness that
requires feeding.
 A. A thin layer cools and solidifies where
the metal touches the mold surface.

B. Heat is sucked out of the metal

anywhere it is touching the mold, and
crystal dendrites form along the
surface layer
C. As heat continues to leave via the
metal/mold interface, the dendrites
grow.
D. Metal in the center finally cools
enough to start to crystallize. Small seed
crystals form.

E. These seed crystals multiply and

grow until the casting is solid.
 Solidification Time

Solidification time = C(volume/surface area)2

Where C is a constant that depends on mold material and

thickness, metal characteristics and temperature.
 Molding sand
MOLD SAND, SAND ADDITIVES
&
SAND PROPERTIES SAND PROPERTIES
Molding sand, also known as foundry sand, is a sand that when moistened and
compressed or oiled or heated tends to pack well and hold its shape. It is used in
the process of sand casting for preparing the mould cavity.
Green sand is an aggregate of sand, bentonite clay, pulverized coal and water. Its
principal use is in making molds for metal casting. The largest portion of the
aggregate is always sand, which is often a uniform mixture of a form of silica.[1]
There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but they all strike different
balances between moldability, surface finish, and ability of the hot molten metal
to degas. The coal, typically referred to in as sea-coal, which is present at a ratio
of less than 5%, partially combusts in the surface of the molten metal leading to
offgassing of organic vapors.
Not all Green sand is green in color. But considered "green" as in the sense that it
is used in a wet state (akin to green wood). According to the Cast Metals
Federation website, an alternative casting method is to heat-dry the molded sand
before pouring the molten metal. This dry sand casting process results in a more
rigid mold better suited to heavier castings.
A crucible containing bronze is poured into the Green Sand, which contains a hollow
shape below, that will become the finished cast.
Mold Material
The mold material is the one out of which the mold is made.
The mold material should be such that casting should be able to retain its shape till the
molten metal has solidified.
Types of molds:
Permanent molds: They are made up of ferrous metals and alloys (Steel, Grey CI,
etc.). Permanent molds Temporary refractory molds They are employed for casting low
melting point materials Since they are made of refractory sands They are costly. They are
employed to produce objects smaller in size. They produce casting with better surface
finish, quality and dimensional accuracy.
Temporary refractory molds: They are made of refractory sands and resins
Molds made of wax, plastic, Plaster of Paris , carbon, ceramics are also employed., the
temporary refractory molds employed for casting high melting point materials They are
cheaper. They are employed to produce objects bigger in size. The surface finish, quality
and dimensional accuracy of the casting produced by temporary molds is poor.
Properties of Molding Material
Flowability –
 It is ability of molding sand to get compacted to a uniform density. Flowability assists
molding sand to flow and pack all around the
pattern and take up the required shape.
 The sand mold should response to different molding processes.
 Flowability increases as the clay and water content increases.
Green Strength -
 The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The strength of the
sand in green or moist state is termed as green strength.
 A mold with adequate green strength will be able to retain its shape and will not distort
or collapse.
 The green sand particles have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient
strength to the mold.
Collapsibility -
 It is property due to which the sand mold automatically gets collapsed after casting
solidifies.
 The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the
casting it does not provide any resistance,
which may result in the cracks in the casting.
Dry Strength -
 It is the strength of the molding sand in dry conditions.
 When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly
converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten
metal.
 At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape
of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the metallostatic pressure
of the liquid material.
 Dry sand strength is related to grain size, binder and water content.
Permeability -
 During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and
steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during
melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core
sand. The binder, additives, etc. present in the molding sand also produce steam and other
gases.
 If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the
casting and cause casting defects.
 To overcome this problem the molding material must be porous or permeable to provide
path for the escape of gases. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that
are generated inside the mold cavity.
 Sand with Coarse grains exhibit more permeability.
 In absence of permeability the defects like surface blows, gas holes, etc. may be
experienced.
Refractoriness -
 It is the ability of the molding material to withstand the temperature of the liquid
metal to be poured so that it does not get cracked,
fused with the metal or experience any major physical change.
 Refractoriness is essential while casting high melting point materials.
 The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.
Fineness –
 Finer sand molds resists metal penetration and produces smooth casting surface.
 Fineness and permeability are in conflict with each other and hence they must be
balanced for optimum results.
Bench Life –
 It is ability of the molding sand to retain its properties during storage.
Besides these specific properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable,
coefficient of expansion, durability and should have
good thermal conductivity.
Molding Sands: Sources, Types, Ingredients
 Molding Sands: Sources, Types, Ingredients

Sources:
 River beds
 Sea
 Lakes
 Desert
Types:
 Natural sands
 Synthetic sands
 Loam sands
Ingredients:
 Refractory sand grains
 Binders
 Water (moisture)
 Additives
Natural Sands
 It can be used as soon as received from source.
 It contains binding material (5-20%), water (5-8%) and
considerable amount of
organic matter.
 It can maintain moisture contain for long time.
 The finishing obtained on natural sand molds is good.
 It is cheaper compared to other sands.
 It has lesser refractoriness.
 It is employed for casting CI and non-ferrous metals.
 Molds made of natural sand can be easily repaired.
 When mixed with Bentonite, the properties of the sand gets
improved and it gets
properties like Synthetic sand.
Synthetic Sands
 A synthetic sand consists of natural sand with or without clay,
binder and moisture.
 The organic matter is not present in synthetic sand.
 Synthetic sand is a formulated sand, formulation is done to
impart certain desired
properties not possessed by natural sand.
 Possesses good refractoriness, high permeability, uniform grain
size as compared
to natural sand.
 It is more suitable for mass production and mechanized
foundries.
Loam Sands
 It contains much more clay (50% or more) as compared to
ordinary sand.
 The ingredients of Loam sand may be fine sand, clay, finely
ground refractories, graphite and
fibrous reinforcement.
Refractory Sands
1. Silica sand
2. Magnite
3. Zircon
4. Dolomite
5. Olivine
6. Silimanite
7. Graphite / Carbon
Properties of Refractory Sands
 They maintain their shape and other characteristics at
high temperature.
 When packed to produce the mold cavity, they remain
sufficiently porous or permeable
to give out gases produced during solidification of molten
material.
 They can be molded into intricate shapes.
 They are chemically immune to molten metals.
 They can be used repeatedly to make molds.
 They are inexpensive.
 They can be made available without much difficulty.
 Molding Sand Composition
Base Sand
 Silica sand is most commonly used base sand.
 Other base sands that are also used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand and
olivine sand.
 Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is easily available.
Binder
 Binders are of many types such as, Clay binders, Organic binders and Inorganic binders
 Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to
provide the strength.
 Bentonite can absorb more water than fire clay which increases its bonding power.
Water (Moisture)
 Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture.
 When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats
the surface of each
flake of the clay.
 The amount of water used should be properly controlled.
 This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in
bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity.
 Typical Composition of Molding Sand

Molding Sand Constituent Weight (%)

Silica sand 92 Clay
(Sodium Bentonite) 8 Water
4

Grain Size
 The grain shape and size of molding sand defines the total surface area of grains
contained in unit mass.
 Total surface area is known as Specific Surface.
 Specific surface gives rough idea of amount of binder needed to coat the grains of
molding sand.
SAND
DEFECTS OF CASTINGS
Types of Casting Defects and How to Prevent Them

Gas Porosity. Pinholes. Blowholes. Open Holes.

Shrinkage Defects. Open. Closed. Warping.
Mold Material Defects. Cuts and Washes. Swells. Drops. Metal
Penetration. Rat Tails. Fusion. Run Out.
Pouring Metal Defects. Cold Shot. Cold Shut. Misrun.
Metallurgical Defects. Hot Tears. Hot Spots. Slag inclusion.
Casting Shape Defects. Mismatches. Flash.
Gas Porosity
When cast metal solidifies in a mold, it can’t hold as much gas as it does in liquid form, so
it releases it. That is part of the reason molds are permeable, to allow gas to escape. Several
factors can cause impermeability, which can result in gas bubbles getting trapped inside the
metal. These bubbles can include:

Pinholes
Also known as porosities, pinholes are smaller holes in the upper part of a casting. They’re
usually in groups near or at the casting’s surface and visible to the naked eye.

Blowholes
Blowholes are larger holes that can appear in the inside of a cast piece. Invisible to the
naked eye, interior blowholes are detectable by x-ray, harmonic, ultrasonic, or magnetic
analysis. Blisters, a variant of blowholes, are thinly covered shallow holes.

Open Holes
A type of blowhole, open holes appear at the piece’s surface. These defects are caused by
air getting trapped as metal is poured into the mold. There is also a shallow variant of open
holes called a scar.
What Causes Gas Porosity?
Holes like these tend to show up in badly vented areas or where too much dampness is
present. More specifically, they can be caused by sand with too much moisture, wet
ladles, insufficiently gasified sand, or the by the molten metal’s overly high temperature,
which leads to over absorption of gas.

How to Prevent Gas Porosity

Avoid pinholes, blowholes, and open holes by making sure the molding sand is dry and
permeable. It should be noted that the coarser sand is, the more permeable it is. Even
using sand that is too fine can prevent optimal permeability. Additionally, sand molds that
have been rammed too much lose their permeability, so it’s important not to overdo it.
Make sure that molds and cores are dry before use and stored under dry conditions as
well, and be sure that there’s enough venting in the molds to allow gases to escape.

You should also use good melting practices by melting the material in a vacuum, around
low-solubility gases, or under a flux, which prevents air from touching the molten metal.
If nothing else works, try pouring the molten metal at a lower temperature during the
casting to keep it from absorbing as much gas.
Shrinkage Defects
Shrinkage defects appear because metal alloys shrink as they cool. It is normal for an
alloy piece to shrink as it solidifies (which should be included in calculations when
designing the mold). However, defects occur when the metal shrinks unevenly, causing it
to either distort the shape of the final product or create interior holes. This can also stress
the metal.
Open Shrinkage Defects
Open shrinkage shows up on the surface of a cast product either as a dip (also known as a
caved surface) or a hole (also known as a pipe). When metal shrinks unevenly, it draws
air inside the mold in that area to create these types of defects.
Closed Shrinkage Defects
Closed shrinkage appears in the form of holes inside of a casting, generally where a part
of the liquid metal was hotter than the rest of the material. It can appear in macro or
micro form. Micro shrinkage, also called shrinkage porosity, looks to the naked eye like
jagged marks or lines. The holes, which look angular, can only be seen with a
microscope.
Warping
Warping can happen either during the metal’s solidification or afterward, changing the
casting’s dimensions and shape. This stresses the metal and causes curving, especially in
large and flat sections of castings.
What Causes Shrinkage Defects?
Shrinkage defects show up when the liquid metal in the mold is not all the same temperature.
There are two possible causes for this: either the metal being poured into the mold is too hot
or the metal is solidifying unevenly. Uneven solidification often happens when mold design
ignores the rule of directional solidification. This rule states that the thinnest pieces of the
molded shape should solidify first, and the thickest pieces solidify last, to ensure shrinkage
doesn’t alter or damage the piece.

How to Prevent Shrinkage Defects

Problems with continuous flow at the right temperature (which contributes to uneven
solidification) can be lessened by ensuring a continuous, even supply of liquid metal into the
molds. This can be accomplished by using a runner and gate system with risers to supply the
molten metal, which involves channels for the metal to flow through into the mold (the
running system) and reservoirs of liquid metal on top of the mold (also known as risers) to
fill in where the metal shrinks.

Additionally, molds can be given padding, which widens the ends of narrow pieces attached
to thicker parts, as this helps ensure the thicker sections get enough liquid metal before the
thin part solidifies. Some manufacturers also place cooling ribs, cooling coils, or chills inside
the molds to disperse heat faster. Pouring the metal at a lower temperature may also help.
Mold Material Defects
As suggested by the name, mold material defects are caused by the mold material, but
they can also be caused by mold design problems. This makes up the largest category of
casting defects, with seven basic types.

Cuts and Washes

Cuts and washes are caused when the liquid metal erodes away part of the mold when
pouring in and the sand doesn’t have enough heat strength to resist it. Washes and cuts
show up as low bulges along a surface of the finished product, tilted toward one end
where the molten metal had more force as it flowed in.
Swells
Swells show up as a swollen area on the finished piece. These defects happen when the mold
is too soft, so that the weight of the liquid metal pushes the sand outward.
Drops
Drops show up as irregular bumps on the tops of castings. They’re caused when the mold is
weak and sand falls into the liquid metal. Drops also make the metal surface dirty.
Runout
Runout happens when the mold leaks, leaving an inadequate amount of metal to form the
desired casting.
Fusion
Fusion shows up as a glassy looking crust on the surface of a cast piece. It happens when
some of the sand in the mold melts and fuses with the casting.
Metal Penetration
When sand grains are both loose and large, molten metal can penetrate into the mold,
creating a rough surface in the casting.
Rat Tails
Rat tails, also known as veins, are irregular lines along a casting’s surface caused when the
heat of the molten metal makes the sand expand. Buckles are more extreme versions of rat
tails.
What Causes Mold Material Defects?
As noted, causes can vary with the defect produced. However, most defects are caused
either by molds that are too soft which need more ramming, or by pouring in metal when
it’s still too hot.
How to Prevent Mold Material Defects
Ensuring molds receive enough ramming to hold the molten metal is an effective way to cut
down on all of these problems, as well as making sure the metal being poured isn’t too hot.
However, if that doesn’t work there are other methods of fixing these issues that vary from
defect to defect.
Cuts and washes might need redesigned gate systems or more binders added to the sand.
Swells can be stopped by lessening the water content of the sand in the mold.
Drops can be avoided by reinforcing mold projections with nails or gaggers.
Runout happens with worn out molds that need replacements, or badly designed molds.
Fusion can be avoided by ensuring the sand in the mold is resistant to the temperature of the
molten metal.
Metal penetration can be fixed by ensuring the insides are properly coated with mold wash
and sand grains are sufficiently small and impermeable to molten metal.
Rat tails can be stopped by redesigning the mold to have smaller flat surfaces or ensuring
the mold is soft enough to expand properly from the heat.
Pouring Metal Defects
As opposed to many of the other defects in this guide, these defects appear when
temperatures are too low during the pouring process. They fall into three categories:

Cold Shot
Cold shot is balls or drops loosely attached to the casting, left over from splatters of molten
metal as it was being poured. Since they’re smaller, the splatters cool before the rest of the
casting and become embedded or attached.

Cold Shut
Cold shuts occur when metal flows into a mold from two or more points, but it’s too cold
to merge into a seamless piece. That’s when it creates a crack through the middle with
rounded edges, which becomes a weak spot in the casting.

Misruns
Misruns, the close relatives of cold shuts, happen when the metal is so cool it solidifies
before it can fill the entire mold. Misruns show up as castings with parts missing.
What Causes Pouring Metal Defects?
Defects from pouring the metal all stem from the overly cold temperature of the metal
once it reaches the inside of the mold. These defects can be caused by simply pouring
in metal when it’s not hot enough. However, even with metal originally poured at the
optimum temperature, defects can be caused by poor gating systems that allow the
metal to cool off too much before it gets into the mold, or by mold sections that are
too thin. Thin sections can solidify and block off other mold sections due to their thin
size.

How to Prevent Pouring Metal Defects

Pouring metal defects can, for the most part, be avoided by ensuring the molten metal
stays warm enough to completely conform to the inside of the mold. The gating
system can be redesigned to transport the molten metal faster, or to avoid sections that
are thin enough to solidify before the metal can fill larger cavities beyond them. If
that’s not feasible, the pouring temperature can simply be increased. Increasing the
mold’s gas permeability can also make the gases evacuate faster, so that the metal has
less time to cool while still flowing into the mold. Cold shot specifically can be
caused by careless pouring, so ensuring the metal is poured smoothly can also help
with this problem.
Metallurgical Defects
Metallurgical defects show up when there are problems in the metal of a casting. There
are three types, which include:

Slag Inclusion
Slag inclusion happens when metal isn’t properly cleared of slag before being poured. It
simply means the finished casting will have impurities or foreign material embedded in
it. When the inclusion is dirt, castings will have a honeycomb or spongy look.

Hot Tears
Hot tears, also known as hot cracks, show up when the cooling metal contracts. In this
state, when the metal is still weak, residual stress in the metal or poor mold design can
cause the metal to pull apart, resulting in branching, irregular cracks. Sometimes these
are difficult to see with the naked eye.

Hot Spots
Also known as hard spots, these defects occur when certain parts of a casting cool off
faster than the areas around them, creating harder parts of the casting. These can wear out
tools and interfere in the machining process.
What Causes Metallurgical Defects?
Metallurgical defects are caused by different factors depending on the defect.Slag
inclusion happens before the metal makes it to the mold, when the metal isn’t purified
properly or too much of the top of the metal (where the slag is) is included in the pour.
When dirt or other foreign material apart from slag shows up, it can also be a sign that
the molds weren’t clean.
Hot tears are generally caused by badly designed molds, which don’t allow the cast part
to shrink in all directions. However, they can also be caused when the metal doesn’t have
enough tensile strength, the excess heat of the poured metal makes it shrink more than the
mold is calculated to allow for, or the cooling is uneven, creating internal stresses. Hot
tears can also be caused by cores or a mold that doesn’t deform properly in heat.
How to Prevent Metallurgical Defects
With hot spots and hot tears, the mold is the key. The chances of both can be greatly
reduced by using well-designed molds that evenly cool the casting and that deform the
proper way in hot conditions. Alternatively for hot spots, changing the chemical
composition may help to solve the problem.Slag must be removed before pouring. This
can be done by adding elements to the liquid to make slag float to the top where it can be
removed, or by using a ladle that pours metal from its bottom. Slag can also be kept out
of castings by putting a ceramic filter into the gating system.
Casting Shape Defects
Defects in the shape of a casting appear as either mismatches or flash. Shape
defects are some of the easiest to fix, since they generally involve readjusting
existing molds.

Mismatches
Mismatches, also known as shifts, are when different parts of a casting come
out misaligned with each other, usually horizontally. Similarly, core shift (also
known as vertical displacement) happens with misaligned cores.

Flash
Also called casting fins or burrs, flash shows up as extra material attached to
the casting, usually as a thin sheet that forms where parts of a mold meet. Flash
is one of the most common casting defects
What Causes Casting Shape Defects?
Mismatches happen when the upper and lower parts of a mold aren’t
properly lined up before the metal is poured, or the flask (which contains
the mold) is misaligned. Core shift, on the other hand, can happen when
box or pattern dowel pins are loose or inaccurate. Flash comes from a mold
that isn’t weighed down or clamped properly. It forms when there are gaps
in the core or mold.

How to Prevent Casting Shape Defects

To prevent casting shape defects, check to make sure the plate pattern
mounting and alignment are the same. This can help to see if there are
inaccuracies in the pins. Sometimes reassembling the mold can fix the
problem. Meanwhile minor flash on finished castings can be gotten rid of
through breaking it off and filing it down, although this can get expensive.
Inspection of Castings:
A large number of methods have been developed to inspect castings
for defects that may occur during their production. Such inspections
may be in process inspections or finished product inspections.
The inspection methods may also be divided into
destructive or non-destructive categories depending upon the
magnitude of damage done to the casting during inspection.
Destructive methods generally relate to sawing or breaking off of
parts of the castings at places where voids or internal defects are
suspected. Castings may also be damaged during strength tests.
Destructive tests suffer from the disadvantage that the saw cuts may
miss the flaw or the sample may not represent the behavior of the
entire lot. Because of these reasons non-destructive tests are
generally more commonly relied upon than destructive tests.
Some of the prominent non destructive methods are described below:
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a common method for inspecting castings without
having to damage the product under assessment.

This includes:
Cavity shrinkage.
Dendritic shrinkage.
Filamentary shrinkage.
Sponge shrinkage.
Non-destructive methods used for finding casting Defects.

The various casting defects may be on the surface, under the surface of the
solidified casting. These defects are found out by the below mentioned non-
Destructive Inspection methods.

1. Ultra Sonic Inspection

2. Liquid Penetrant Inspection

3. Magnetic Particle Inspection

Ultra sonic Inspection.

Ultrasonic sound waves are in the frequency decibel which cannot be heared by
a human ear. The bats use this kind of sound waves in-order to find the
obstacles while flying. These waves will be reflected back to the source when
obstructed. Similarly, in ultrasonic testing there is a probe which sends the
ultrasonic sound waves into the metal part that is to be inspected. The sound
waves will be reflected back after hitting the other end of the metal.

If there is a crack in the middle of the metal part, then the sound waves will be
reflected before in advance.

This process is shown in the monitor as a graph. Thus the crack is identified
and decided wheather to rectify the crack or reject the metal part.
2. LPT (Liquid Penetrant Testing)
Chemicals Used.

1. Cleaner

2. Potassium Permanganate solution

3. Developer.

Initially the Casted Metal Part to be inspected is cleaned using Cleaner. Dust, oil, Grease
etc are removed. Then potassium permanganate solution is sprayed over the surface of the
metal part and allowed to remain for 5 – 7 mins. Then the potassium permanganate
solution is cleaned.

Now developer is applied over the surface. Due to capillary action the rose/pink colour
potassium permanganate liquid will reach the surface of the crack. And now the crack will
be visible in pink/rose color.Thus the surface cracks are inspected on the casting.
ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF LPT

Cost of the chemicals is low when compared to UT & MPT.

Huge / Large size components can be inspected, only on the

particular area, where it is required.

Time taken is less.

3.MPT Magnetic Particle testing.

This method of inspection is used on magnetic ferrous castings for detecting

invisible

surface or slightly subsurface defects. Deeper subsurface defects are not

satisfactorily detected because the influence of the distorted lines of magnetic
flux (owing to a Discontinuity) on the magnetic particles spread over the casting.

The defects commonly revealed by magnetic particle inspection are quenching

cracks, overlaps, thermal cracks, seams , laps, grinding cracks, fatigue cracks,
hot tears Etc,
 Investment casting
Investment Casting

Investment casting produc es very high surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
Investment casting is com monly used for precision equipment such as su rgical equipment,
for complex g eometries and for precious metals.

This process is commonly used by artisans to produce highly detailed art work.

The first step is to produce a pattern or replica of the finished mould. Wax is most commonly
used to form the pattern, although plastic is also used.

Patterns are typically mass-produced by injecting liquid or semi-liquid wax into a permanent
die.

Prototypes, small production runs and specialty projects can also be undertaken by carving
wax models.
Casting with expendable mould:
Investment Casting

Parts of grea t complexity and intricacy can be cast

– Close dimensional control and good surface finish

– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse

– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape process

Disadvantages

– Many processing steps are req uired

– Relatively expensive process

 METAL CASTING PROCESS
1 State any four types of patterns.

Ans: The various types of patterns which are commonly used are as follows:

1) Single piece or solid pattern

2) Two piece or split pattern

3) Loose piece pattern

4) Cope and drag pattern

5) Gated pattern
2 Mention any two advantages and disadvantages of die casting.

Ans: Advantages:

• It is a very fast process.

• Moulds have longer life.

• Better surface can be obtained.

Limitations:

• Moulds are much costlier.

• This method is not suitable for small quantity production.

• Shape and weight of the casting is limited.

3 Write the requirements of good pattern.

Ans: Simple in design

• Cheap and readily available

• Light in mass

• Surface id smooth

• Have high strength

4.What is core venting?

Ans: While pouring the mould with molten metal mould walls and cores heat up rapidly
and releases large amount of gases. In order to prevent casting defects these gases must be
vented out. For this purpose core venting are used. Core venting are incorporated in the
core box itself.

5.What function of core ?

Ans: Functions of core are:

• Core provides a means of forming the main internal cavity for hollow casting.

• Core provides external undercut feature.

• Cores can be inserted to obtain deep recesses in the casting.

• Cores can be used to increase the strength of the mould.

6. Which process is called lost waxing method? Why?

Ans: Investment casting process is also known as Lost-wax process. The term
investment refers to a clock or special covering apparel. In investment casting, the clock is
a refractory mould which surrounds the precoated wax pattern.

7. What is the function of core prints?

Ans:

1. Core prints are basically extra projections provided on the pattern.

2. They form core seats in the mould when pattern is embedded in the sand for
mould making.

3. Core seats are provided to support all the types of cores.

4. Though the core prints are the part of pattern, they do not appear on the cast part.
8. What are the advantages and applications of ceramic moulds?

Ans: Advantages:

• It is less expensive
• Intricate objects can be casted.
• Castings of thin sections and which do not require machining can be
produced.

Applications:
• It is mainly used for all material using better ingredient in slurry.

9. What are the pattern materials?

Ans:

1) Wood
2) Metal
3) Plastic
4) Plaster
5) Wax
10. Explain the term fettling.
Ans: Fettling is the name given to cover all those operations which help the
casting to give a good appearance. It includes the removal of cores, sand, gates,
risers, runners and other Unwanted projections from the casting.

11. What are the applications of casting?

Ans: Transportation vehicles (in automobile engine and tractors)

• Machine tool structures

• Turbine vanes and power generators
• Mill housing
• pump filter and valve

12. Mention the specific advantages of Co2 moulding Process.

1.Gives strength and hardness to core.

2.Process cost is less.
3.It saves time on heating.
4.It can be stored for long use.
13. Define AFS grain- fineness number.
It is defined as the ratio between the total products and total percentage of sand retained
on pan and each sieve.AFS grain fineness number =sum of products /total sum of the %
of sand retained on pan and each sieve.

14. Classify moulding Machines.

1.Squeezer Machine.
2.Jolt machine.
3.Jolt – squeezer Machine.
4.Slinging Machines.
5.Patten draw Machines.

15.what are the different types of furnaces used for casting.

1.Cupola Furnace. 2.Open Hearth furnace 3.Crucible Furnace. 4.Pot Furnace. 5.Electric
Furnace.

16.State the main functions of tuyeres in cupola furnace.

The tuyers are used to supply air to the coke bed for complete burning.
Conclusion
Here we’ve covered the basics of gas porosity, shrinkage, mold
material, pouring metal, metallurgical, and casting shape defects,
including specific examples of defects that can appear in your
castings. Are you ready to start sourcing, now that you’re more
familiar with the types of faults that can appear in castings? If so,
you can check out our Supplier Discovery page, which has
information on over 500,000 North American suppliers. Or, if
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