Mechanism

turbulent flow
 In a turbulent flow, each
individual fluid particle moves
along a complex curved path
different from the particle
trajectories and participates in
random transverse
movements.
 In a space filled with a
moving fluid, we note a
point O.
Various liquid particles - a and b, will
pass through it, and the velocities of
these particles va and vb will be
different not only in magnitude but
also in direction.

The velocities of moving fluid

particles at a given point at a given
time are called instantaneous local
velocities at a given point.
 Denote:

The ΔF is cross-sectional element

of the flow at the point О

vх - the corresponding longitudinal

component of local speed.
Any instantaneous velocity v can be decomposed into components:
• longitudinal (along the x axis) vx, directed parallel to the axis of the flow;
• two transverse flowing in the plane of the live section of the stream - the horizontal
component vy along the y axis and the vertical component vz along the z axis
Graph for axial component of instantaneous velocity

• This graph is called ripple graph

• A change in time of the

instantaneous velocity

component in time is called a

 Since the instantaneous speed at a given
point is not constant, but varies over time,
the concept of - averaged speed - the
average speed at a given point over a
sufficiently long period of time is
introduced.

v A dash denotes
averaged
The volumetric amount volumetric
of fluid passing through Consequently,
amount of fluid
the ΔF section for an elapsed in a

infinitely small time dt, finite time t,

will be
t
V   v x Fdt
dV  v x Fdt 0
 Elementary flow rate of fluid
t
F  vx dt
V
dQ   0
t t
This flow rate can also be calculated from the time –

average longitudinal instantaneous velocity vx

dQ  v x F
 t
We get, equation :  v x dt
0
vx 
t

• The obtained value is the longitudinal component

averaged over time.
• Similar expressions can be obtained for the y () and z ()
axes.
 The vector of the
full averaged velocity
will be determined by the expression

2 2 2
v vx  vy  vz
Local hydraulic resistance
The main types of local pressure losses can be divided into the following groups:

1. Losses associated with a change in the cross section of the

flow (sudden or gradual expansion, narrowing of the flow).

2. Losses caused by a change in flow direction (elbows, bends

used in pipelines).

3. Losses associated with the flow of fluid through valves of

various types (valves, taps, check valves, etc.).

4. Losses associated with the separation of one part of the flow

from another or the merger of two flows into one common
(tees, crosses and holes in the side walls of pipelines)
 Types of local resistance
Sudden expansion Sudden narrowing Diaphragm

Smooth expansion (diffuser) Smooth narrowing (confuser)

Sharp turn (knee) Smooth turn

 Local losses are determined by a formula
(Weisbach 's formula) expressing loss in proportion
to the high-speed head.
2
v
hl .r . 
2g
where
• v - is the average fluid velocity in the flow cross-section behind the local resistance;
• ζ - is a dimensionless coefficient called the local resistance coefficient.
The value of ζ is established experimentally.
 If the head loss is expressed in terms of speed in front of the
local resistance, it is necessary to recalculate the local
resistance coefficient using the ratio

2
 1  F1 
  
 2  F2 
where ζ1, ζ2 - local resistance coefficients corresponding to
sections F1 and F2.
Hydraulic system with local resistance
• 1 - entrance to the pipe,
• 2 - sudden expansion,
• 3 - mesh
• 4 - sudden narrowing,
• 5 - diffuser
• 6 - aperture
• 7 - confuser,
• 8 - turn
• 9 - tee,
• 10 - knee
• 11 - valves, gate valves,
• 12 - turn
• 13 - entrance to the tank.
Equivalent length in
local resistances
• Sometimes local resistances are expressed
through the equivalent length of the straight
section of the pipeline.
• The equivalent length is the length of the straight
section of the pipeline of a given diameter, the
pressure loss in which, is equal to the local losses
considered .
hl .r .  hfr
The equivalent length Leqv can be found from the equality
of the head loss along the length and local head losses

• pressure losses along • local pressure losses are

the length are taken into account by the
determined by the formula
formula Weisbach
Darcy - Weisbach 2
v
hl .r .  
 Leqv  v 
 2
h fr      2g
 d  2 g 
λ - is a dimensionless quantity called the

hydraulic friction coefficient;

Leqv - the equivalent length;

d - pipeline diameter;

v - is the average velocity of the fluid in the flow;

ζ - coefficient of local resistance

Equating the right sides of these
formulas, we find

 
Leqv   d

 
 Local resistance
in the form
of a suddenly expanded flow
 In a horizontal fluid flow, we select the volume
between sections 1-1 and 2-2 and apply the theorem
on the increment of momentum to it.
Theorem:
The increment of the
momentum is equal to
the momentum of the
projections of all the
acting forces on the
direction of motion.
 To increase the amount
of movement we get:

m 2 v2  1v1   Qdtv2  v1  (а)

• Q – flow rate
• ρ – density;
• Boussinesq coefficients, which are corrections to the momentum due to the
uneven distribution of velocities in the cross sections of the flow
 The hydrodynamic pressures p1 and p2 in these
sections are uniformly distributed over the entire area F2.
For P1 and P2 we get:
P1  p1 F2 ; P2  p 2 F2

• The sum of the projections of the force pulses on the direction

of motion will be equal to:

 p1  p 2 F2 dt (b)
 Equating (a) and (b) we get

Qdtv 2  v1    p1  p 2 F2 dt
We substitute the fluid flow rate equal
to into
the resulting expression, and we get:

F v dt v2  v1    p1  p2 F2 dt
2 2
Dividing the resulting expression by ρg, we get:

v2 v2  v1  ( p1  p2 )

g g
or
 p1  p 2  2
v2
v 2 v1
 
g g g
We compose for the same two sections, the Bernoulli equation
in its usual form
2 2
p1 p2v1 v2
z1    z2    h1 2
g 2 g g 2 g

from this expression we find the expression

for pressure loss during sudden expansion:

hsud .exр.     

 p1 v12   p2 v22   p1  p2  v12  v22
    

 g 2 g   g 2 g  g 2g
 Transforming this expression we get:

v22 v2 v1 v12 v22 v12 2v1v2 v22

hsud .exр.       
2g g 2g 2g 2g 2g 2g

Loss of head during sudden expansion is equal to the velocity

head corresponding to lost speed (v1 - v2).
(v1  v2 ) 2
hsud .exр. 
2g

This result is called

Borda-Carnot theorem, or formula.