COPCA1-B11

Public relations and

communications

Chapter 11
Introduction
• “The truth is rarely pure, and never simple (Oscar Wilde)
• What is the role of PR in society?
• Critical issues facing society
• Unethical behaviour by organisations, business and government
highlight the need for effective solutions to ethical dilemma
• Conflict between maximising profit and increased social welfare
• Framework needed
• Clear understanding what is ethical behaviour
• Effective mechanisms for ensuring organisation follows
ethical practices

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Defining and contextualise ethics

Define ethics

• Public’s perception of an organisation’s standards of behaviour

• Involve moral judgement of consequences
• What the organisation and employees say and do
• Value based
• Stems from socio-economic contexts
• Major theoretical approaches conflict
• Evaluation of ethics depend more on the framework than the issue
Major theoretical approaches to ethics
1. Kantian theory & normative
ethics
‒ All rational people would find
acceptable
‒ Consider the pros and cons of
issue
‒ Normative approach implies
ethical behaviour
‒ Focuses on the rights of others “Do the right thing
‒ Allows considerable because it is the right
discretion thing to do” (E. Kant)
‒ Relies on value-based beliefs
and attitudes
Major theoretical approaches to ethics

2. Utilitarian theory
‒ Consequences of actions determine ethical behaviour
‒ Outcomes drive decisions
‒ Being responsible for business decisions will promote ethical
behaviour
‒ Some decisions have unintentional consequences not
considered in decision-making process
‒ Unethical actions may result from decisions that were initially
believed to be ethical
‒ Ethical actions may follow unethical decisions
Major theoretical approaches to ethics

3. Contractual theory
•Contracts and laws to determine and monitor ethical behaviour
•Relies on external enforcement of the contracts

• Ethical theories not precise

• Enforcement of ethical actions relies on individual judgement
• Distinction of ethical and unethical behaviour is based on cultural
milieu
• By product of social norms
Conflicting ethical decisions in society and
organisations
• Conflicting sets of social norms within the same culture. E.g. health
risks for women of childbearing age – is it then discrimination against their
age and gender?
• Before ethical behaviour can be enforced there must be a clear
understanding of what should be enforced
• Conflict between organisational and societal objectives – even more
complex to decide what is ethical
Ethical organisations and people make
ethical decisions
• Effective solution for ethical decision making must consider the barriers to
implementation
• Understand the nature of ethical behaviour. E.g. multinational
organisations which operates in different countries with different cultural
biases
• Ethical organisations and people, make ethical decisions
• Ethical decisions must be based on social norms
• Business decisions will reflect the ethical tolerance of the environment
• Laws cannot resolve ethical issues, but can help to establish the
meaning of ethics
• Establish ethical performance by integrating moral decision making
• Diminishes conflict between profits and ethics
Ethical-decision-making framework
Top management must be
committed to ethical
conduct and provision of
leadership and attend to
renewing of organisational
values

Ethical behaviour
requires a
Results of comprehensive ethical
programmes must be perspective that is
continuously assed . understood by everyone
(code of conduct cannot
cover all situations)

Vigorous and
Employees must be continuously renewed
committed to ethical process of
behaviour implementing ethical
behaviour
PR and ethics

“PR practitioners continue to be plagued

by charges of unethical conduct”
• Parameters for PR not clearly defined
• PR not the same as journalism and cannot be
compared to the objectivism of journalism
• No clear minimum standards – industry has to
set standards
• Guilt by association: more and more PR
professionals fail to meet public expectation
The role of the PR practitioner/manager in ensuring corporate ethics

• PR departments are concerned with how organisation

communicates
• Core ethical responsibility of PR: managing the moral dimension of
corporate conduct
• Theories on PR ethics not fully developed
• Different views on relevance of approaches to real-word issues
• “There is no accepted conceptual framework from which to study
public relations ethics”
• Constant need to seek an appropriate approach to ethics in PR
Difference between journalistic/objectivity ethics and advocacy ethics

• PR is a young profession
• PR seeks realistic ethics foundation
• journalistic/objectivity ethics more appropriate in a hostile society
• Advocacy ethics:
• two-way symmetrical model
• aims to build consensus
• productive relationship with its publics
Contemporary approaches

3. Community/
1. Attorney 2. Enlightened communitarian/
adversary self-interest social
responsibility

4. Sullivan’s
5. The two-way
partisan values 6. Normative
symmetrical
versus mutual approach
approach
values
Attorney adversary
• Perform socially necessary role of professional advocacy within
adversary process
• Essential to free enterprise and competition
• Functions the same way as a lawyer represents his/her client
• Defence of this approach: public have a responsibility to gather and
evaluate information that is relevant to their lives and choices
• Criticism:
• Fairness presumed
• No presumption
• Media-driven court of public opinion
• Operates without rules of evidence
• Opposing voices are silent
• Important information withheld

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Enlightened self-interest
• Business do well financially by doing good (ethically)
• In bottom-line interest to engage in good deeds and ethical
behaviour
• Defence:
• form of justification is similar to utilitarian reasoning
• Options are weighed and cost and benefits to all concerned
parties considered
• Criticism:
• Ethical problems with this approach
• Corporate action based on corporate social responsibility
• Action done out of a sense of duty and not selfish motives
• Treat beneficiaries as a means to an end

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Community/communitarian/social responsibility
• Taking actions that are morally right for that reason alone
• No ulterior motives
• Based on values: honesty, respect, fairness, avoidance of harm, justice
• Distributing of the benefits and burdens of living together in a democratic
society
• Social responsibility or social investment recognise, accepts and acts on a
general responsibility to those who will be affected by the actions
• Defence of this approach: most PR agrees with this concept
• Enhanced social responsibility
• Good citizenship
• Improved community relations
• Service to society
• Criticism
• Limiting to develop standards of practice in PR – because primary
focus is on the obligations of organisations rather than ethical
obligations of PR practitioner

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Sullivan’s partisan values versus mutual
values
• Albert Sullivan (1965) proposed a model for PR – later reviewed
by Pearson (1989)
• Approach is based on partisan and mutual values
• Mutual values: respect for human rights
• “higher” than partisan values
• Can lead to too much commitment and obedience
• Partisan values: commitment, trust, loyalty, obedience
• Defence: disapproves of zealous advocacy
• Should focus on social responsibility of PR
• Challenging to balance special interest of organisation with
those affected by organisation
• Criticism: approach does not give an indication of when it is
appropriate to put interest of others above interest of organisation

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The two-way symmetrical approach
• Grunig and Grunig (1996)
• Approach is based on principles of mutuality
• Offers an ethical description of the role of PR person
• PR person play key role in adjusting/adapting behaviours of
publics and bring them together
• Win-win approach: provide framework for socially responsible
practices
• Defence: provide forum for dialogue
• Addressing issues with people with differing values reach
different conclusions
• Dialogue should be structured according to ethical rules
• Criticism: power relationships – who is making the rules?
•Not completely altruistic: defend interest of employers – they
have mixed motives

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 Normative approach
• Pearson (1989) developed approach based on theories of Habermas (1984),
Kohlberg (1981) and Gilligan (1982)
• Habermas rest his concept on the ideal communication situation – situation
characterised by dialogue
• Participants agree on rules to facilitate their dialogue
• When disagree on values: debate and try to persuade each other
• Kohlberg: people must developed through several stages of moral development
• Habermas and Gilligan: moral development has one more stage: interactive
competence (ability to engage in dialogue)
• More ethically developed, the more it uses concepts of reciprocity and symmetry
• Basic premise: ethical PR is implementing and maintaining inter-organisational
systems that question, discuss and validate ethical claims
• Basic moral imperatives: establish and maintain communication relationships
with all publics affected by organisation action. Essential to improve quality of
communication relationship – increasing dialogue

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Professional responsibility approach – Bivins four paradigms

Act in the Serves

best public
interest of interest
client causes

Improve
Provide
quality of
services to
debate over
individuals
issues
Professional responsibility approach to PR ethics : three foundation
principles

The
comparison
Distributive
of harms
justice
and
benefits

Respect for
persons
Professional responsibility approach to PR ethics : PRISA code of
conduct

• Declaration of principles – support human rights

• Code of professional conduct
1. Definition – management through communication
2. Professional conduct – respect public interest
3. Conduct towards clients/employers – safeguard confidence
4. Conduct towards colleagues – not injure professional reputation
5. Conduct towards the business environment – declaring interests
6. Conduct towards channels of communication – not engage to
corrupt the integrity of channels or media
7. Conduct towards the state – respect the Constitution
8. Conduct towards PRISA – respect dignity and decisions
9. Disciplinary rules – infringes the Code of Ethics and Professional
Standards
Ethics, PR and professional responsibility: Baker’s (1999) two levels
for moral justification of persuasion in PR

Social Kingdom of
responsibility ends
• Higher • Living one’s life
responsibility to as if it were the
community role model for
(customers, the world
clients
humanity)
Ethics, PR and professional responsibility: accountable on the
kingdom of ends level

• Clear definition
• What does organisation mean by “bigger, better, the best?”

• Scientific evidence
• Objective evidence
• Facts, data

• Context for comparison

• Better/faster/cheaper/cleaner/safer/easier than what?

• Audience sensitivity
• Respect culture, religion, gender etc.
Strategic ethics (Kruckeberg)

• Think strategically rather than tactically

• Look strategically at ethical ramifications of their organisation
• As well as of their professional PR communication practices
• Strategically assess organisations’ overall impact on
environment
• Determine impact of specific PR strategies on publics
Questions to consider as part of strategic ethics (Kruckeberg)

• Harm the sea, earth, sky? If so, repair/restore?

• Value the sanctity of human life? Respect human life and cultures?
• Dignity of the earth and all life forms respected and protected?
• Seek two-way symmetrical dialogue and foster mutual respect?
• Portray image accurate and truthful?
• Accountable legally and ethical to serve the needs of society?
PR and SPIN
• ‘Under belly’ of PR
• Public manipulation
• Every communication takes place in a
cultural, physical and relational context
• Seriously constrains messages
• Organisations perceived as superior.
• PR was publicity, persuasion and media
relations: one-way flow of information
• PR now is a two-way symmetrical
communication that permits feedback from
public
• Public comes in contact with corporate
image – good or bad – depends on the
relational history with organisation
Stages in moral reasoning
Preconventional A restricted stance focusing on self-interest

Stage 1 Obey orders, fear reprisal, use emotion over reason, concentrate on
personal goals and situational consequences
Stage 2 Obey orders, fear reprisal, use emotion over reason, concentrate on
personal goals and situational consequences
Conventional Conformity to commonly accepted expectations as standards

Stage 3 Promote the interests of one’s culture, peer group or organisation –

reasoning based on principles of group or results in actions beneficial to
group
Stage 4 Obey the law and fulfil duties to benefit group, keep to the rules

Postconventional Personal autonomy and critical reflection

Stage 5 Base decisions on universal social well-being

Stage 6 Weigh every decision on its benefit to society in terms of universal

principles such as equity, justice, fairness. People are ends not means.
Principles good for everyone to live by