Temperature and Light Sensors

a) Thermocouple
b) Thermistor
c) Resistance-Temperature Devices (RTDs)
d) Solid State (PN Junction Diode) Thermometry
e) Fiber Optic GaAs Bandgap Temperature Sensor
f) Blackbody Radiation and IR Non-contact Thermometry (Pyrometer)
g) Thermopile Radiation Detector
h) Optical Instruments: Spectrophotometers
i) Snell’s Law and Optical Fiber
j) Light Sources (Incandescent, LED, Laser)
k) Photon Detectors
1. CdS Photocell
2. Photodiode
3. Phototransistor
4. Photomultiplier
l) Wavelength Selectors (Optical Filters)
Practical Thermocouples
Thermocouples are manufactured in many different
configurations for multitude of applications. Diameters,
lengths, sheath material, lead lengths and sensor material
are just a few of the variables that go into determining the
style of thermocouple when manufactured. The main
determining factors of what type thermocouple needs to be
used in a application is temperature, environment,
response time and accuracy. The junction of the
thermocouple can be grounded, ungrounded or exposed.
The thermocouple junction may be of many different styles,
from tube type to a washer configuration. The lead length
may vary depending on the distance of the temperature
controller from the thermocouple sensor. The metal that
the sensor is constructed of determines the type of
thermocouple manufactured.

Applications:
Plastic injection molding machinery
Food processing equipment
Engine and turbine exhaust gas
Semiconductor processing
Heat treating and metals processing
Medical equipment
Aerospace industries
Packaging equipment
Test stands
Use of Thermocouple in Gas Furnace
Standing Pilot Light (small gas flame that is
Furnace Thermocouple
always on --- used to light gas furnace). (actual wire junction is sheathed in protective
Thermocouple senses pilot light flame copper tubing)
temperature. If pilot light goes out, thermocouple
will close the pilot valve, not letting gas be sent to
the furnace, thereby protecting homeowner from
gas filling house!

Honeywell Standing Pilot Valve Body

© Honeywell 2006
 Role Played by Thermocouple in Gas Furnace
• The thermocouple is the pilot's, well, co-pilot! It
is the electronic device that senses if the pilot
flame is hot enough to sustain burning the gas
fuel from the burner.
• If the thermocouple thinks it's safe, then it keeps
open the main gas valve located in the pilot
assembly.
• If the thermocouple does not sense enough heat
from the pilot flame (such as when the pilot is
out), then the thermocouple shuts off the gas
valve to the burners.
Typical “Standing Pilot” Gas Furnace

If thermocouple
does not sense
the heat coming
from the flame of
the pilot light, it
shuts off the gas
supply to the pilot
flame AND to the
main burner bed.
The Law of Intermediate Temperatures makes it possible to use the NIST
thermocouple polynomials, which relate thermocouple voltage (x) in mV to
temperature (T) in degrees C for each kind of thermocouple, assuming that one
junction is held at 0 degrees C, and the other junction is at “T” degrees C.

Example: Here are the empirically obtained coefficients taken directly from the NIST document for
the Type J (Iron/Constantan) thermocouple which hold over the temperature range of 0 - 760
degrees Centigrade, where one junction MUSTBE HELD at 0 degrees C using an “Ice Bath”, and the
other junction is held at temperature “T”,
1 1 2
c0  0 c1  1.978425  10 c2  2.001204  10 c3  1.036969  10
4 6 8  10
c4  2.549687  10 c5  3.585153  10 c6  5.344285  10 c7  5.099890  10

The temperature T is in degrees Centigrade, and the voltage "x" is in millivolts are related by the
following 7th degree polynomial:

2 3 4 5 6 7
T c0  c1 x  c2 x  c3 x  c4 x  c5 x  c6 x  c7 x

A. If T = 100 degrees C, use MAPLE to show that the measured voltage is V = 5.2679 mV

MATHCAD needs and initial guess for the voltage x  0

Given
2 3 4 5 6 7
c0  c1 x  c2 x  c3 x  c4 x  c5 x  c6 x  c7 x 100.0
Find( x)  5.26785 mV
• REMEMBER: to use the NIST polynomials, the reference junction
MUST be held at 0 degrees C, which corresponds to an easily
laboratory-duplicated standard temperature: the temperature of an ice
bath at its “triple point” (gas/air/liquid).

• But it is not practical to carry an ice bath around in a portable

temperature measuring instrument!

• Instead of an ice bath, the portable instrument has its reference

junction tied to a “thermal mass” (heat sink) with a relatively long
thermal time constant that assumes the average temperature of the
surrounding environment (like a cave assumes the average yearly
temperature of its environment.) Let’s call this thermal mass
temperature “Tavg_env”.

• The Law of Intermediate Temperatures allows us to relate the voltage

produced by a thermocouple whose junction temperatures are (Tx,
Tavg_env) to the voltage produced by an identical thermocouple
whose junction temperatures are (Tx, 0 deg C), which is the voltage
predicted by the NIST polynomial equation.
 Tavg_env
Tx 0 Degrees C
Tavg_env
(Ice Bath)

= Emeas (Actual = Ecal (Calibration Voltage – may be calculated

measured Voltage)
from NIST coefficients and Tavg_env)

0 Degrees C (Ice Bath)

Tx

E_corrected = Emeas + Ecal

E_corrected represents the voltage that WOULD HAVE BEEN
MEASURED if the thermal block were replaced by the Ice Bath
reference. This is the voltage that must be used (as “x” in millivolts)
with the NIST polynomials to find the unknown temperature, Tx (in
degrees C)
 Practical Thermistors
NTC => “Negative Temperatur Coefficient” => Resistance
goes DOWN with increasing temperature
The Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
RTD materials. Pt is the most
popular, but also the most
costly, because of its high
resistivity, relatively high
melting point, and because it is
a “noble metal” (it is not willing
to combine with other elements
easily, so its resistance remains
stable since it is not easily
“contaminated”!)
Improved RTD measurement circuits: Minimizing inaccuracy caused by
resistance of cables that connect the RTD element to the instrument.
RTD temperature sensors are used when
accurate and repeatable temperature sensing
is needed. They are manufactured from
platinum and are available in a 2 or 3 wire
configuration. As with thermocouples the RTD
sensor is available in a large number of
different configurations.

Applications:
Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
Furnace servicing
Food service processing
Medical research
Textile production
Plastics processing
Petrochemical processing
Microelectronics
Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement
PN Junction (Integrated Circuit) Linear Thermometry
National
Semiconductor
LM35 Linear IC
Temperature
Sensor
Audio Amplifier Application of LM35 Temperature Sensor
(LM3886 is a 60 Watt IC Audio Power Amp IC)
 See:
Text Fig.
2.20, p. 75
Fiber Optic
Temperature
Sensor
Measures temperature
inside body without
danger of introducing
electrical currents into
body that could harm
patient, nor can electrical
currents during
defibrillation harm
temperature measuring
electronics at ends the
transmit and receive
fibers.
 KEY FEATURES
Small and robust design
Good accuracy and outstanding
repeatability
EMI/RFI and microwave immune
Intrinsically safe
OEM-type and custom version

Opsens’ OTG-A fiber optic temperature sensor offers

the highest performances in the industry. The OTG-A
sensor uses the well proven technique based on the
APPLICATIONS
temperature-dependent bandgap of GaAs crystal as EM, RF and microwave environments
the temperature transduction mechanism. Its small High voltage environments
sensing GaAs crystal located at the tip of the optical Nuclear and hazardous environments
fiber makes it convenient for tip measurement
applications. Microwave assisted chemistry
Combined with Opsens’ GaAs signal conditioning Sterilization applications
technology and with the inherent advantages of fiber In-situ process control
optic, the OTG-A delivers unprecedented repeatability
and reliability in the most adverse conditions such as
RF and microwave drying applications
high level of EM, RF, MR and microwave field
environments.
The standard operating range of the OTG-A is from -
40 °C to +250 °C. Higher temperature ranges up to
350 °C are available upon request.
Non-Contact Infrared Thermometer
(Pyrometry)
• Based upon Planck’s Law that relates temperature of a
“blackbody” to the IR radiation that it emits.
• A blackbody is an object that absorbs all incident
radiation, it usually has a rough surface.
• Radiation from any object may be found by multiplying
the blackbody radiation by a “correction factor”, called
the emissivity of the object “ε”, which varies between 1
(perfect blackbody) and 0 (perfectly reflective object).
• Rough objects (like the human skin) are a very nearly
blackbodies (skin has an approximate emissivity of ε = 0.98)
Infrared Emissivity of common materials
Spectral radiant emittance vs. wavelength for a blackbody at 300K on left
vertical axis & Percent of total power radiated on the right vertical axis.
Spectral
transmission for
several optical
“window”
materials

Spectral
sensitivity of
photon
detectors
and thermal
detectors.
Inside a silicon radiation thermopile microsensor
Thermocouple junctions are made from Phosphorus (N) Doped and Boron (P) Doped
PolySilicon, resulting in a high Seebeck Coefficient. Cold junctions are located under
the reflecting areas, which are in contact with the silicon wafer (heatsink), while the Hot
junctions are located under the absorbing polyimide material, and are NOT in contact
with the silicon wafer, since holes have been etched in the silicon (white areas below).

Hot-cold junction
pairs are connected
in series in a 2-
dimensional array
over the active area
of the IR
microsensor.
 V = K(T4-To4)

Bandpass Filter

180 degree
phase
difference if
Tobject < To
Chopping blade used to make signal AC in order to avoid 1/f noise,
which is largest near dc, and also to avoid the effects of dc amplifier
drift. A bandpass filter (BPF) centered on the chopping frequency can
be used to reject all noise that is not at the chopping frequency.
OmegaScope Handheld IR Thermometer

Built-In Patented Laser Sighting is Switchable

Between Laser Dot or Circle Patterns
•New Series Includes High Performance, General
Purpose, Close Focus and High Resolution
Models
•Models Available with Temperature Ranges to
870°C (1600°F)
•Emissivity Adjustable from 0.1 to 1.00 in 0.01
steps
•Backlit LCD Display
•Dual Digital Display Indicates Current with Min,
Max, Average, or Difference Temperatures
•°C/°F Selectable
•1 mV/Degree Analog Output Standard
•RS-232 Output Models Include FREE Data
Logging Software
•Audible and Visible Alarms
•Integral Tripod Mount
•Type K T/C Input Available
•Temperature Data Storage Available
•Electronic Trigger Lock
•Last Temperature Recall
•All Models Include Built-In Laser Sighting,
Display and Lens Protective Bumpers, Wrist
Strap, Soft Carrying Case, 4 Long Life Lithium
Batteries, and User’s Manual with Emissivity
Reference ChartReference Chart
•Distance Measuring Option
 Introduction to Infrared Pyrometry
Why should I use an infrared pyrometer to measure temperature in my
application?

Infrared pyrometers allow users to measure temperature in applications where conventional

sensors cannot be employed. Specifically, in cases dealing with moving objects (i.e., rollers,
moving machinery, or a conveyer belt), or where non-contact measurements are required because
of contamination or hazardous reasons (such as high voltage), where distances are too great, or
where the temperatures to be measured are too high for thermocouples or other contact sensors.

What should I consider about my application when selecting

an infrared pyrometer?

The critical considerations for any infrared pyrometer include field of view (target size and distance),
type of surface being measured (emissivity considerations), spectral response (for atmospheric
effects or transmission through surfaces), temperature range and mounting (handheld portable or
fixed mount). Other considerations include response time, environment, mounting limitations,
viewing port or window applications, and desired signal processing.
FIELD OF VIEW--- What is meant by Field of View, and why is it important?

The field of view is the angle of vision at which the instrument operates, and is
determined by the optics of the unit. To obtain an accurate temperature reading,
the target being measured should completely fill the field of view of the
instrument. Since the infrared device determines the average temperature of all
surfaces within the field of view, if the background temperature is different from
the object temperature, a measurement error can occur (figure 1).
IRt/c MONITORS TIRE TEMPERATURES FOR RACING PERFORMANCE
Tire temperature is of critical concern in automotive racing for two reasons: the tire
temperature directly affects its adhesion and its wear characteristics; and tire temperature
patterns provide valuable information on the set-up and performance of the suspension. For
example, excessive loading of a tire caused by out-of-tune suspension will cause that tire to
become considerably warmer than the others.

The IRt/c is an ideal measuring device for on-board data acquisition, due to its small size,
ruggedness, and low cost. It may be connected to standard thermocouple read-out systems.
Installation should include connecting the shield to a suitable ground in order to avoid
interference from the electrically harsh environment of a racing automobile. Mechanical
installation should include attention to air flow patterns to minimize dirt building on the lens.
The OS36-2 or OS36-5 are recommended due to their narrower field of view, thus allowing
you to position it further away.
CONTROLLING WEB ROLLER TEMPERATURE

The IRt/c infrared thermocouples have quickly become the sensors of choice for
monitoring and controlling both web and roller temperatures. Tips on accurate roller
temperature measurement:

Uncoated Metal or Chrome Rolls – Shiny, uncoated metal rolls are difficult for any
infrared sensor to properly sense the true temperature (the sensor will see too many
environmental reflections). The solution to the problem is to simply: paint a small
black stripe on an unused end of the roller. Aim the IRt/c sensor at the black paint
stripe. It will then measure the temperature accurately and reliably regardless of
changes in the surface conditions of the rest of the roller.
ASPHALT TEMPERATURE MONITORING

Asphalt properties are particularly sensitive to temperature, and it is important that the asphalt
is applied at the correct temperature in order to perform to its specifications. Accordingly,
temperature monitoring is a common requirement, but the thermocouples normally used have
severe breakage problems due to the harsh abrasiveness of the material, and must constantly
be replaced at high cost and interruption of production.

The IRt/c solves this problem directly, since the temperature is monitored without contact. The
normal thermocouple controller can be used – simply calibrate offset if necessary. The OS36-2
and OS36-5 models are recommended due to their built-in air purge, which will keep the lens
clean by preventing vapors from condensing on the lens. The OS36-2 can be mounted in the
chute to view the asphalt through a small hole, while the OS36-5 can be mounted some
distance away due to its narrow 5:1 field of view.
Optical Instrument: Spectrophotometer – measures optical
absorbance (or transmittance) through a sample in the cuvette.
Convex Lens has a “focal length”, which is the length at which light rays
diverging from a point source will be collimated (be made parallel).
Conversely, the focal length may be thought of as the distance at which
parallel rays incident on the lens converge to (are focused to) a point.

1
1 Focal Any 1 Focal 1 Focal Any Focal
Length Length Length Length Length Lengt
h

“f-number” of a lens = focal length / diameter

 Blood Oximetry --- Based on the Absorptivities of
Oxygenated Hemoglobin (Hb02) and Unoxygenated
(Reduced) Hemoglobin (Hb).
I Hgbx
Absorptivity ( )  log( )
I water
Hb02

Isosbestic
Wavelength Wavelength Hb
of maximum λ2= 805 nm
Absorptivity
difference
λ1= 660 nm
Absorbtivity “A” can be measured at I blood
different wavelengths, where “I” is the A( )  log( )
detector output.
I water
Beer’s Law

A(2 )  WLa (2 )  (C0  Cr )  WLa (2 )

 Cr = 1-Co

Only Co is unknown, everything else is known!

805 nm
(or 910 nm)

660 nm
 Principles of Pulse Oximetry Technology:

The principle of pulse oximetry is based on the red and infrared light
absorption characteristics of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin.
Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more infrared light and allows more red
light to pass through. Deoxygenated (or reduced) hemoglobin absorbs more
red light and allows more infrared light to pass through. Red light is in the
600-750 nm wavelength light band. Infrared light is in the 850-1000 nm
wavelength light band.
Pulse oximetry uses a light emitter with red and infrared LEDs that
shines through a reasonably translucent site with good blood flow.
Typical adult/pediatric sites are the finger, toe, pinna (top) or lobe of the
ear. Infant sites are the foot or palm of the hand and the big toe or
thumb. Opposite the emitter is a photodetector that receives the light
that passes through the measuring site.

There are two methods of sending light through the measuring site:
transmission and reflectance. In the transmission method, as shown in
the figure on the previous page, the emitter and photodetector are
opposite of each other with the measuring site in-between. The light can
then pass through the site. In the reflectance method, the emitter and
photodetector are next to each other on top the measuring site. The
light bounces from the emitter to the detector across the site. The
transmission method is the most common type used and for this
discussion the transmission method will be implied.
After the transmitted red (R) and infrared (IR) signals pass through the
measuring site and are received at the photodetector, the R/IR ratio is
calculated. The R/IR is compared to a "look-up" table (made up of empirical
formulas) that convert the ratio to an SpO2 value.

Most manufacturers have their own look-up tables based on calibration curves
derived from healthy subjects at various SpO2 levels. Typically a R/IR ratio of
0.5 equates to approximately 100% SpO2, a ratio of 1.0 to approximately 82%
SpO2, while a ratio of 2.0 equates to 0% SpO2.

The major change that occurred from the 8-wavelength Hewlett Packard
oximeters of the '70s to the oximeters of today was the inclusion of arterial
pulsation to differentiate the light absorption in the measuring site due to skin,
tissue and venous blood from that of arterial blood.

At the measuring site there are constant light absorbers that are always present.
They are skin, tissue, venous blood, and the arterial blood.

However, with each heart beat the heart contracts and there is a surge of
arterial blood, which momentarily increases arterial blood volume across the
measuring site. This results in more light absorption during the surge.
If light signals received at the photodetector are looked at 'as a waveform',
there should be peaks with each heartbeat and troughs between heartbeats.
If the light absorption at the trough (which should include all the constant
absorbers) is subtracted from the light absorption at the peak then, in theory,
the resultants are the absorption characteristics due to added volume of
blood only; which is arterial.

Since peaks occur with each heartbeat or pulse, the term "pulse oximetry"
was coined. This solved many problems inherent to oximetry measurements
in the past and is the method used today in conventional pulse oximetry.
 Light Source Radiant Energy vs. Wavelength

• Tungsten (W) at 3000K has a broad spectral output, at

2000K, output is lower at all wavelengths and the peak output
shifts to longer wavelengths. Note that much of the radiation
from an incandescent (W) lamp is NOT visible, but rather is
infrared.
• LEDs yield a relatively narrow spectral output, with color
determined by the bandgap of the semiconductor. GaAs is
IR LED, GaP is RED LED, GaAsP is green LED.
• Monochromatic outputs from lasers are shown by dashed
lines: Ar, 515 nm; HeNe, 633 nm; ruby, 693 nm; Nd, 1064 nm
Filter Transmission vs. Wavelength

•Crown glass passes a wide range of ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared
wavelengths.
•A Corning 5-56 glass filter passes a blue wavelength band.
•A Kodak 87 gelatin filter passes infrared and blocks visible wavelengths
•Germanium (Ge) lenses pass long IR wavelengths that cannot be passed by
glass, and thus Ge lenses are useful in IR pyrometers
•Hb and HbO unoxygenated and oxygenated hemoglobin pass equally at 805
nm and have maximal difference at 660 nm.
 Detector Sensitivity vs. Wavelength

• Thermal (Thermopile or Pyroelectric detector) has very wide response,

using absorbing areas to convert light into heat.
• S4 is a typical phototube response.
• Human eye has relatively narrow response, with colors indicated by
VBGYOR.
• CdS photocell has response similar to eye.
• PbS photocell is a sensitive near IR detector (burning flame thermometry).
• InSb photocell is useful in far IR (body temperature thermometry).
 Source/Filter/Detector
Combined Wavelength Response

• Indicated curves from (a), (b), and (c ) are multiplied at

each wavelength to yield the overall wavelength
response of the entire system.
• This indicates the range of wavelengths over which a
particular instrument, such as a spectrophotometer
could be expected to give accurate readings.
 Figure 8.1.
Typical
halogen lamp.

Halogen Lamps
A halogen lamp is a special kind of incandescent lamp. The light output is more consistent
than a standard incandescent lamp and the life is longer. Size is smaller because it is
important for the halogen cycle to have a high bulb wall temperature, which requires quartz
or hard glass to be used. Better beam control is possible because of the small source size.

Halogen Lamp Construction

Construction of a halogen lamp is similar to a standard incandescent lamp with a few key
differences. The light is still produced by a coiled filament of tungsten. The filament is
protected by a quartz or hard glass bulb which is deliberately small to ensure the correct
bulb wall temperature. The bulb is filled with a halogen gas rather than nitrogen and argon.
The halogen gas is either iodine or bromine, or in some cases a mixture of both. The bulb
shape is tubular so it is close to the hot filament. Most GE halogen lamps use quartz bulbs
because this is a stronger material both mechanically and thermally.
Halogen Bulb Operating Principles
•When a tungsten filament is hot, minute particles of tungsten evaporate -
much like steam leaving boiling water.
•With standard incandescent lamps, these particles are deposited on the
inside surface of the bulb - just as steam will condense on cold glass. This
deposit gradually reduces the transmission of light passing through the bulb
as the bulb blackens. This change in light output is called lumen
maintenance.
•However with halogen lamps, the tungsten particles combine with the
halogen gas and are prevented from condensing on the bulb, provided the
bulb is above 200°C.
•The combined tungsten and halogen remains as a gas which circulates
within the bulb, and when it approaches the filament where the temperature
is much higher, the combination becomes unstable and reverts to the two
separate constituents of tungsten and halogen.
•The tungsten will condense on the coolest local point, usually around the
end of the filament. This process is called the halogen cycle.
•As the inside surface of the bulb remains clean the lumen maintenance
remains high throughout the lamp life.
15 kW Xenon High Pressure, High
Voltage High Intensity Arc Lamp
•The electric arc in an arc lamp consists of gas,
which is initially ionized by a high voltage and
therefore becomes electrically conductive.
•To start an arc lamp, a very high voltage is pulsed
across the lamp to "ignite" or "strike" the arc
across the gas. This requires an electrical circuit
with an igniter and a ballast.
•The ballast is wired in series with the lamp and
performs two functions:
First, when the power is first switched on, the
igniter/starter (which is wired in parallel across the
lamp) sets up a small current through the ballast
and starter. This creates a small magnetic field
within the ballast windings.
•A moment later the starter interrupts the current
flow from the ballast, which has a high
inductance and therefore tries to maintain the
current flow (the ballast opposes any change in
current through it); it cannot, as there is no
longer a 'circuit'.
•As a result, a high voltage appears across the
ballast momentarily - to which the lamp is
connected, therefore the lamp receives this high
voltage across it which 'strikes' the arc within the
tube/lamp. The circuit will repeat this action until
the lamp is ionized enough to sustain the arc.
•When the lamp sustains the arc, the ballast performs
its second function, to limit the current to that needed
to operate the lamp.
•Lightning is a similar principle where the atmosphere is
ionized by the high potential difference (voltage)
between earth and storm clouds.
•The temperature of the arc in an arc lamp can reach
several thousand degrees Celsius. The outer glass
envelope can reach 500 degrees Celsius, therefore
before servicing one must ensure the bulb has cooled
sufficiently to handle.
•Some lamps (mainly fluorescent tubes/energy saving
lamps) can be restruck as soon as they are turned off
(called hot restrike lamp).
•Often, if these type of lamps are turned off or lose their
power supply, one cannot restrike the lamp again for
several minutes (called cold restrike lamps).
Carbon Arc Lamp (Low Pressure)
In a carbon arc lamp, the electrodes are
carbon rods in free air. To ignite the lamp,
the rods are touched together, thus
allowing a relatively low voltage to strike
the arc. The rods are then slowly drawn
apart, and electric current heats and
maintains an arc across the gap. The tips
of the carbon rods are heated to
incandescence, creating light. The rods
are slowly burnt away in use, and need to
be regularly adjusted to maintain the arc.
• Fluorescent Lamp Parts
Basically, a fluorescent lamp is made up of five components. See Figure
5.1.
• GLASS TUBE, coated on the inside with fluorescent powders called
PHOSPHORS.
• Two ELECTRODES (or cathodes) coated with EMITTER, supported by a
glass mount structure, and sealed at the ends of the tube.
• FILLING GAS - usually a low pressure of Argon or Krypton/Argon mixture.
• Small amount of MERCURY (less than 20 mg), which vaporises during the
lamp operation.
• LAMP CAP cemented to each end of the tube to connect the lamp to the
lighting circuit.
Fluorescent Lamp Operation
When the circuit is energized, electricity heats the cathodes.
See Figure 5.2. The cathodes are coated with material which,
when heated, emits electrons. The electrons establish an electric
arc between the cathodes at opposite ends of the tube. The
electrons collide with the mercury atoms, causing mercury to emit
invisible ultra-violet radiation. The ultra-violet is absorbed by the
phosphor coating on the tube and re-radiated as visible light.
Fluorescent Lamp Circuit Operation
The circuit must contain a ballast (choke or inductor) to limit the current and a
starter to provide the pre-heat conditions. Initially the starter switch closes so the
two cathodes are connected in series. Current flows and the cathodes heat up
emitting electrons. After a short time the starter switch opens so voltage is applied
across the tube. If sufficient electrons are available an arc is struck and the starter
plays no further part until the next starting operation. If there are insufficient
electrons, the tube will flicker, fail to start, and the starter will repeat the heating of
the cathodes. The ballast limits the current to a safe and appropriate level for the
power of lamp. Without the ballast, the current would increase to a high level and
the lamp would destroy itself.

60 Hz, 120 Vrms

Power Line, N is
neutral (white)
grounded side of line,
and L is the hot
(black) ungrounded
side of the line.
1. The starter (which is simply a timed switch) allows current to flow through the
filaments at the ends of the tube for a few seconds, and then it suddenly
breaks the connection..
2. Most starters incorporate a Neon Glow Tube with an internal bimetallic
switch, which is normally open. When power is applied, a glow discharge
takes place which begins to heat the bimetallic switch inside the glow tube.
A second or so later, the bimetallic contacts heat up and bend (due to
different coefficients of expansion of the two metals) and the contacts close
thereby permitting current to flow through the starting filaments at each end
of the tube. The closing of the switch also shorts out the Neon Glow, and the
glow is extinguished, therefore there is no longer any heating of the bimetal,
and so after a few seconds, the bimetallic switch contacts once again open.
3. An inductive kick voltage spike (vL = Ldi/dt) is generated at the instant the
contacts are opened, since the ballast (choke) current suddenly falls toward
zero as the contacts open.
4. This high voltage pulse is coupled through the capacitor, so it appears
across the two ends of the fluorescent tube, thereby ionizing the mercury
vapor in the tube, and the tube lights.
5. Since the lighted fluorescent tube has a low resistance, the ballast now
serves as a current limiter. Note that now no current flows through the
fluorescent tube’s filaments. They are only used to heat and vaporize the
mercury in the tube before the starter cuts the current through the ballast and
generates the high voltage pulse that starts the arc..
Conventional Neon “Glow Tube” Starters (This classic
design has been in use for more than 50 years!)
The situation before the light
switch is turned on. No power is
applied and the lamp is OFF
Power switch turned on. 120 VAC power voltage ionizes
Neon in glow tube and the glow tube lights and heats up
the bimetal switch contacts inside the glow tube. As
they heat up, the contacts bend toward bend toward
each other until they touch, shorting out the Neon Glow
arc discharge. The glow is extinguished, and the glow
tube cools.
While the contacts are closed, a large current builds up in the ballast
and the tube heater filaments (at both ends of the tube) heat up and
vaporize the mercury in the tube.

A few seconds later, the bimetal contacts cool enough to once again
separate, and the current though the ballast is suddenly interrupted.

As this happens, a large vL = L*di/dt inductive voltage kick is

generated, which appears across the tube (in series with the 120 VAC
power supply.)
 Automatic Restart
1. If the glow bulb starter contacts happen to
open when the 60 Hz is passing through (or
near) a voltage 0 in its 60 Hz cycle, the
inductive kick may not be strong enough to
ionize the mercury vapor in the main tube, and
the main fluorescent tube will not light.
2. However, in this case, the voltage across the
glow tube will be high (since the fluorescent
tube itself is NOT ionized and conducting) and
so the glow tube will once again light and the
whole starting cycle will be automatically be
repeated until an arc is successfully struck in
the fluorescent tube and it lights.!
Note that as Neon glow tube starters age, they get black and eventually
stop working and must be replaced (see the old one on the right). A new
glow tube starter appears on the left. This one also shows a capacitor
connected across the starter to help absorb radio frequency (RF)
emissions caused by the spark across the contacts as the contacts
separate.
Motion detector used
in home security.
Detects only moving
living things at body
temperature that
move past the field of
view of the two
pyroelectric IR
sensors, which are
wired in a series-
opposing fashion.
Side view showing the
Fresnel lens focusing the
incoming parallel IR light
rays onto the surface of the
PIR detector

Front view of the Fresnel

Lens, which looks like a
circularly symmetric grooved
plastic sheet.

Fresnel lens is made with a

material that passes far IR
radiation in the 8 to 14 um
region.
 Load Line Id
Slope = 1/RL
Passes Thru Origin +
D1
P H O TO V O L TA I C C E L L Vd R L L o a d R e s is t o r

Load Line Equation

Id = Vd/RL
=> Passes Throug Origin
Vdx Slope = 1/RL

Idx
Power Delivered to
Load Resistor for 10
mW/cm2 light level:

PRL = -Vdx*Idx

Note that different load

resistances extract
different amounts of
power from photocell