1 – GENERAL GEOLOGY

Group 1 Report

z
 z
Branches of geology
Lesson
Outline
Earth structure and composition

Elementary knowledge of the

continental drift and plate tectonics
Earth processes and their engineering
importance
Origin and occurrence of earthquakes

Mode of occurrence – prospecting and

groundwater
z

z
Quick
Recap
z The word geology means ‘Study of the Earth’

Geology is the primary Earth science and looks at how the

earth formed, its structure and composition, and the types
of processes acting on it.

Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and

beneath its surface, and the processes that have shaped
that structure.

Engineering geology is the application of geology to

engineering study for the purpose of assuring that the
geological factors regarding the location, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of engineering
works are recognized and accounted for
Branches of
z
z

Geology
z
Branches of Geology

Geology is a grand parent subject comprising four levels of

grand children branches. Some of the notable ones are only
discussed in this report.
z  Physical Geology

Physical geology is the fundamental study of the earth's

lithospheric components like rocks, minerals, and soils
and how they got originated over a period.

Many geological processes are active on the surface of

the earth. They are called as exogenous processes.
The highly complex internal processes such as plate
tectonics and mountain‐building have also formed the
crustal rocks and brought them to the earth's surface.
These are called as endogenous processes.
z
All these processes are capable of creating both
constructional and destructional landforms.

The agents that are responsible for these actions are

called as geological agents.

The notable surface geological processes are weathering,

mass-wasting, erosion, transportation and deposition.
z  Historical Geology

Historical geology is a major branch which deals with the

records of events of earth history and with the historical
sequence and evolution of chronological order of their
occurrence and to interpret their significance.

Fortunately, the historical records are preserved in the

layered rocks of the crust. Historical Geology is
sometimes called as Stratigraphical Geology. It brings
together all collated details of other Branches of Geology
like paleontology, petrology and structural geology,
pertaining to age-wise correlated beds.
z  Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and

evolution of landforms and landscapes created by
physical, chemical or biological processes operating at
or near the Earth's surface.

It is concerned with the internal geologic processes of

the earth's crust, such as tectonic activity and
volcanism that constructs new landforms, as well as
externally driven forces of wind, water, waves, and
glacial ice that modify such landforms.
z It is closely related to soil science, hydrology, geology
and environmental science. This has the potential for
applications in environmental / development planning,
transport, human settlements, mining and hydrological
sectors, hospitality and tourism.

Geomorphology also focuses on the investigation of

surface processes and the way these processes
create small-scale landforms.
z • Fluvial Geomorphology

Fluvial geomorphology is an applied science. It is mainly

devoted to understand the development of rivers, both in
their natural setting as well as on how they respond to the
anthropogenic changes imposed within a watershed.

The term 'Fluvial' refers to the processes associated with

running waters, 'geo' refers to earth and 'morphology' refers
to channel shape.

Fluvial geomorphology is the scientific study of the forms and

functions of streams and the interaction between streams
and the landscapes that evolve around them.
z One of the objectives, is to predict what changes will occur to a
stream channel, in response to alterations in watershed
conditions; and, in turn, how these changes will affect /help
human infrastructure and aquatic habitat.

A river's adjustment to watershed perturbations may take

thousands of years. Modifications in a stream channel may take
place in less than a decade. Understanding of how these
modifications, operating at different time scales, alter the width,
depth, and cross-section of a channel, is critical for identifying
potential problem areas, in any river system.
z A geomorphological approach to river management will
certainly help to reduce the flood damages and improve
the aquatic habitat along river courses.

River Ecology is a branch which orients its approach

towards the subject of fluvial geomorphology with
biological inputs.
z • Coastal Geomorphology

Coastal geomorphology, by definition, is the scientific

study of the morphological development and evolution of
the coasts.

Coastal landforms are developed under the influence of

winds, waves, currents, and sea-level changes. This
branch focuses on the physical processes and their
responses in the coastal zone. It is also an applied
science.

Sustainable management of coastal resources requires a

detailed knowledge on coastal zones. Coastal zone
development and management requires a thorough study
of coastal geomorphology. This subject also takes the
involvement of basics principles of hydrodynamics of
oceanic waters.
z • Climatic Geomorphology

Climatic geomorphology is the study of the role of climate in

shaping landforms and the earth-surface processes.

An approach used in climatic geomorphology is to study

relict landforms to infer about the ancient climates. It is
mainly concerned about the past climates.

Climatic geomorphology identifies climatic factors such as

the intensity, frequency and duration of precipitation, frost
intensity, direction and power of wind, and it explains the
development of landscapes under different climatic
conditions.
z
Since landscape features in one region might have evolved
under certain specific climate, different from that of today,
studying climatologically distinct regions of the past might help
to understand the present-day landscapes. This subject helps
to decipher the role of various climatic elements in shaping
landforms and the earth-surface processes.

The prime approach used in climatic geomorphology is to study

the relict landforms to infer their ancient climates. Being often
concerned about past climates, climatic geomorphology is
considered to be a part of historical geology. Climatic
geomorphology highlights the influence of climatic factors and
explains the development of landscapes formed under different
climatic conditions. The core factor is that each climate type
produces its own characteristics assemblages of landforms and
classifies the geomorphic processes which produces them.
z • Tropical Geomorphology

The tropics are a typical climatic region. They are

characterized by particular climates, that may be
dry or humid. The tropics can be divided into two
primary units based on annual rainfall, the humid
tropics and the arid topics. These are the belts of
low latitudes and high temperature. Like climate,
landforms and operating geomorphic processes
are not the same across the tropics. The tropics
are an assemblage of active tectonic belts, ancient
cratons, alluvial valleys and subsiding deltas.
z • Glacial Geomorphology

Glacial geomorphology is the scientific study of the

processes, landscapes, and landforms produced by
ice sheets, valley glaciers, and other ice masses on
the surface of the Earth. These processes include
understanding how ice masses move, and how glacial
ice erodes, transports, and deposits sediment
z • Periglacial Geomorphology

Glacial and periglacial geomorphology are those

branches of geomorphology concerned with the
evolution of landscapes in high latitudes and altitudes.

Periglacial geomorphology must also be viewed as

one of the group of sciences that concern the
cryosphere. Periglacial geomorphology has a special
interest in the thawing and freezing of ground. The
core of periglacial geomorphology is concerned with
the study of freezing processes, associated with
ground ice, and their related landforms.
z  Geocryology

Geocryology is the study of frozen rock, soils, and

ground. It deals with the origin, historical development,
and conditions of existence of frozen strata in the
earth’s crust.

It helps to study the processes and phenomena that

occur in freezing, frozen, and thawing rock, soils, and
ground, as well as their structure, composition, and
properties.
z • Tectonic Geomorphology

Tectonic geomorphology is the study of the interplay

between tectonic and geomorphic processes in regions
where the Earth’s crust actively deforms.

Tectonic geomorphology is the study of the interplay

between tectonic and surface processes that shape the
landscape in regions of active deformation.
z o Paleontology

Paleontology (US spelling) or palaeontology (UK

spelling) is the scientific study of the developing history
of life on earth.

It is the study of ancient plants and animals based on

their fossil record. It is a fact that the evidence of
existence of all life on earth, since the origin, are
mostly preserved in rocks.
z o Invertebrate Paleontology

Invertebrate paleontology (it is also spelled as

Invertebrate palaeontology) is considered to be a
subfield of paleontology, paleozoology, or paleobiology.

It is the scientific study of prehistoric invertebrates by

analyzing invertebrate fossils in the geologic record.
The invertebrates include the non-vertebrate creatures
of the kingdom Animalia (or Metazoa) in the biotic
domain of Eukaryota.
z
By phyletic definition, these are many-celled, sub-
vertebrate animals. They lack a vertebral column, spinal
column, vertebrae, backbone, or long, full-length
notochord -- in contrast, of course, to the vertebrates , in
the one phylum of Chordata. The invertebrates have
never had a cartilaginous or boney internal skeleton. It
has gill slits, ribs and jaws. Throughout the geologic
time, invertebrates have remained noncraniate
creatures.
z o Vertebrate Paleontology

Vertebrates are all the animals with backbones, the

fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
These animals have attracted a great deal of study.
Vertebrate paleontology is a subfield of paleontology.
The study seeks to discover, the features of fossilized
remains, the behavior, reproduction and appearance
of extinct animals with vertebrae or a notochord.
Vertebrate paleontology covers everything from the
tiny, fish-like creatures that first evolved backbones, to
the salamander-like ancestors of all land vertebrates
including dinosaurs, mammals, flying and swimming
reptiles, mastodons, marsupials.
z o Micropaleontology

Micropaleontology (also spelled as micropalaeontology) is a

modern branch of palaeontology. It deals with the study of
microfossils, or fossils that require the use of a microscope to
see the organism, its morphology and its characteristics.

Since the size of the microfossils are generally ranging

between 0.001mm and 1 mm, their study requires the use of
light or electron microscopes. Fossils which can be studied
with the naked eye or low-powered magnification, such as a
hand lens, are referred to as macrofossils. the microfossils
are the remains of unicellular, multicellular micro-organisms
and the dissociated elements and skeletal fragments of
macro-organisms.
z o Palynology

Palynology is the scientific study of contemporary

and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen, spores,
orbicules, dinocysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans and
scolecodonts, together with particulate organic
matter (POM) and kerogen found in sedimentary
rocks and sediments.

Today, palynology has become an interdisciplinary

branch of earth science and biological science,
particularly plant science.
z
o Actuopalynology

Actuopalynology is the study of extant palynomorphs

which are either living, still retain their cell contents, or
whose cell contents have been removed by maceration.

o Paleopalynology

Paleopalynology is the study of fossil palynomorphs,

where "fossil" is defined as "any indication of past life"
including the term "sub-fossil." The study of
chitinozoans (animal remains), fungal spores,
dinoflagellates, acritarchs and other organisms (except
diatoms) is also included in palaeopalynology.
z
o Copropalynology

Copropalynology (Greek ‘kopros’ means dung) is the study

of palynomorphs present in coprolite (= fossilized
excrement) of animals.

o Entomopalynology

Entomopalynology is the study of pollen grains that are

associated with insects.

o Latropalynology

Latropalynology is the ‘study of spores and pollen as applied

to human health problems.
z
o Stratigraphical Palynology

Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of

micropaleontology and paleobotany, which studies fossil
palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene. The
subject relies on the use of palynomorphs, their
identification, distribution, and abundance to correlate
among sedimentary sequences of any age, or to provide
chronological control for these sedimentary sequences.
 z
More Branches
Paleobotany is the study of ancient plants, which are existing
in fossilized forms. It is one of the branches of paleontology or
paleobiology. It deals with the recovery and identification of
plant remains from the geological formations, and their use
for the biological reconstruction of past environments
(paleogeography), and both the evolutionary history of plants,
with a bearing upon the evolution of life.

Paleoecology (also spelled palaeoecology) is the study of

interactions between organisms and/or interactions between
organisms and their environments, across geologic
timescales. As a discipline, paleoecology interacts with,
depends on, and informs a variety of fields including
paleontology, ecology, climatology and biology.
z Palaeogeography (or paleogeography) is the scientific
study of historical geography, generally within the physical
landscapes. Palaeogeography includes the study of human
or cultural environments. Paleogeography yields information
that is crucial to the scientific understanding in a variety of
contexts.

Crystallography is the study of crystals became a separate

subject called as Crystallography. Crystallography is the
experimental science of determining the arrangement of
atoms in the crystalline solids.
z Mineralogy. The history of mineralogy is as old as
humankind. Minerals have been an important part of our
society since the time of prehistoric man. Mineralogy is
the branch of geology concerned with the study of
minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy include the
processes of mineral origin and formation, classification
of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as
their utilization.

There are several different branches to mineralogy.

Physical mineralogy: Physical mineralogy is concerned

with the physical properties and descriptions of minerals.
Minerals can be described using several physical
attributes, including hardness, specific gravity, luster,
color, streak, and cleavage.
z Chemical Mineralogy: The chemical mineralogy deals with the
investigation of the chemical composition of minerals and its
variation, the processes of mineral formation, and the changes
minerals undergo when acted upon chemically.

Descriptive Mineralogy: Descriptive mineralogists use the

properties discussed in physical mineralogy to name and classify
the new minerals.

Optical Mineralogy: Optical mineralogy is the study of minerals

and rocks by measuring their optical properties. Most commonly,
rock and mineral samples are prepared as thin sections or grain
mounts for study in the laboratory with a petrographic
microscope. Optical mineralogy is used to identify the
mineralogical composition of geological materials in order to help
reveal their origin and evolution.
z Petrology: Petrology is the scientific study of rocks, their
composition, texture, and structure, their occurrence,
distribution and origin in relation to physicochemical
conditions and geologic processes of formation. It is
concerned with all three major types of rocks—igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary. Petrography is a branch of
petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks.
Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer.
Earth Structure
z
z

and Composition
z
Earth Structure and Composition
Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on
composition. The crust makes up less than 1 percent of
Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and continental
crust is often more felsic rock. The mantle is hot and
represents about 68 percent of Earth’s mass. Finally, the
core is mostly iron metal. The core makes up about 31% of
the Earth.
Lithosphere and asthenosphere are divisions based on
mechanical properties. The lithosphere is composed of
both the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that
behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The asthenosphere is
partially molten upper mantle material that behaves
plastically and can flow.
z  Crust and Lithosphere

Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer

shell made of rock. The crust is very thin, relative to the
radius of the planet.

There are two very different types of crust, each with its
own distinctive physical and chemical properties.

Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on

the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools deeper
down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro.
Sediments, primarily muds and the shells of tiny sea
creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near
the shore where it comes off the continents in rivers and
on wind currents.
z Continental crust is made up of many different types of
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The
average composition is granite, which is much less dense
than the mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust.
Because it is thick and has relatively low density,
continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic
crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins. When
filled with water, these basins form the planet’s oceans.

The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer, which

behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The lithosphere is about
100 kilometers thick. The definition of the lithosphere is
based on how earth materials behave, so it includes the
crust and the uppermost mantle, which are both brittle.
Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act on the
lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an
earthquake.
z  Core

At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core.

Scientists know that the core is metal for a few reasons.
The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than
the overall density of the planet, as calculated from the
planet’s rotation.

If the surface layers are less dense than average, then

the interior must be denser than average. Calculations
indicate that the core is about 85 percent iron metal
with nickel metal making up much of the remaining 15
percent. Also, metallic meteorites are thought to be
representative of the core. If Earth’s core were not
metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field.
z  Mantle

The two most important things about the mantle are:

(1) it is made of solid rock, and (2) it is hot. Scientists
know that the mantle is made of rock based on
evidence from seismic waves, heat flow, and
meteorites.

The properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite, which

is made of the iron and magnesium-rich silicate
minerals. Peridotite is rarely found at Earth’s surface.
Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot
because of the heat flowing outward from it and
because of its physical properties. Heat flows in two
different ways within the Earth: conduction and
convection.
z Conduction is defined as the heat transfer that occurs
through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if
the material is solid. Heat flows from warmer to cooler
places until all are the same temperature. The mantle is
hot mostly because of heat conducted from the core.

Convection is the process of a material that can move

and flow may develop convection currents. Convection in
the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on
a stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as
material near the core heats up.
z As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material,
particles move more rapidly, decreasing its density and
causing it to rise. The rising material begins the convection
current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it
spreads horizontally. The material cools because it is no
longer near the core. It eventually becomes cool and dense
enough to sink back down into the mantle.

At the bottom of the mantle, the material travels horizontally

and is heated by the core. It reaches the location where
warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell
is complete.
z Metals such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which
makes up the mantle and crust, is not. Scientists know
that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid
because S-waves stop at the inner core. The strong
magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid
outer core. Convection currents in the outer core are
due to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat
that keeps the outer core from solidifying is produced
by the breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner
core.
Elementary knowledge
of the continental drift
z
z

and plate tectonics

z Elementary Knowledge of the Continental Drift and Plate
Tectonics

 Continental Drift

The possible movement of the continents relative to one

another in the geological past was first outlined at length by
Alfred Wegener in 1912, and it became a matter of controversy
for many years. During the 1960s, however, new evidence
came to light which conclusively demonstrated that drifting had
taken place; the evidence came largely from the study of
magnetism in the rocks of the Earth's crust and from detailed
surveys of the ocean floors. These demonstrated that the
continents have not remained in their same relative position and
that the ocean floors are much younger than the continents they
separate.
zWegener and others pointed out the similarity
of the coastlines of Africa and South America
which, although separated at the present day
by the Atlantic, would be explained if the two
continents were originally adjacent and parts
of a single land mass. He postulated a
supercontinent to which he gave the name
Tangaea’.

There are also geological features in the two

continents that correspond, such as belts of
strongly-folded rocks in South Africa and North
Africa which run out to the coast and have
their counterparts in South America. Other
similarities are shown by fossil faunas, one
example being the remains of the early horse
(Hippariori) found on either side of the Atlantic
(Fig. 1.10). Fig 1.10 Geological
Resemblances across the
Atlantic (after A.L. du Toit.
1937)
z

Fig 1.11 Fit of South America and Africa at the 1000 fathom
line (Bullard, 1965: after S.W. Carey, 1958)
z Lands in the southern hemisphere including
South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and
peninsular India formed a large continent, called
Gondwanaland (Fig. 1.12), some 400 million y
ago in Carboniferous times they have since
moved apart to their present positions. When
Antarctica and Australia (with New Zealand) lie
together as shown in the figure, certain
geological features (g) of the two continents
become aligned; also the west side of India and
Sri Lanka when alongside east Africa show a
correspondence of particular rocks. An extensive
glaciation in Carboniferous times affected what is
now southern Africa, India, south Australia, and
parts of Brazil and Argentina, as evidenced by
glacial deposits found in all those areas. This Fig 1.12 Reconstruction of
glaciation is readily explained if the glaciated Gondwanaland (after G. Smith and
lands were originally parts of Gondwanaland, the Hallam, 1970)
Earth's south pole at the time being situated at
about the center of the area shown in Fig. 1.12.
z
When the continent broke up and its several parts began to
separate, some 200 my ago, Africa and India moved
northwards and eventually impinged upon the southern
margin of the Eurasian continent, where great fold-mountain
systems - the Atlas, Alps, and Himalayas - were ridged up in
early Tertiary times. It is estimated that the Indian block
moved northwards at a rate of some 20 cm per year to reach
its present position.
z By comparing
Figs. 1.10, 1.11
and 1.12 with
Figs 1.13 and
1.14 it will be
noticed that
between the
drifting
continents lie the
oceanic ridges. Fig 1.13 Map of the Oceanic Ridges (after Heezen, 1963. The
These, and the Sea).
ocean floor on
either side of
them, provide
evidence that
explains the
mechanism for
continental drift. Fig 1.14 Profile across the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (after Heezen,
1959)
z  Plate Tectonics

When the validity of continental drift became accepted, in the

mid-1960s, the idea was advanced that the outer shell of the
Earth, the lithosphere, could be considered as a mosaic of
twelve or more large rigid plates (Fig. 1.17).

Fig 1.17 Plate

boundaries in the
Earth’s crust
z
These plates were free to move with respect to the underlying
asthenosphere, and could also move relatively to one another
in three ways: (i) by one plate sliding past another along its
margin; (H) by two plates moving away from one another; (Hi)
by two plates moving together and one sliding underneath the
edge of the other.

The first of these is expressed at the Earth's surface by

movement along major transcurrent faults, such as the San
Andreas fault.
 z The second type of movement is shown by the formation
of oceanic ridges, (Fig 1.18).

Fig 1.18 Generalized cross-section across the western Atlantic: based on Dewey and Bird (1970)
z
The third kind of movement is expressed by the deep ocean
trenches (Fig. 1.19), where the edge of one plate has moved
downwards under the other and is dispersed in the mantle, a
process known as subduction.

Fig 1.19 Diagrammatic

section through an
ocean trench and its
relation to subduction of
an oceanic plate
z The main trenches include the Aleutian trench, the Kuril-
Japan-Marianas trench, and the Philippines and Indonesian
trenches (Fig. 1.20).

Fig 1.20 Generalized cross-section across Japan, based on Miyashiro (1970)

z A distinction must be made between continental plate and
oceanic plate. The former is capped by continental crust, i.e.
the continents 'ride' on the underlying plate. Six of these major
plates are distinguished, namely the North and South
American, Eurasian, African, Indo-Australian, and Pacific
Plates (Fig. 1.17); there are many other smaller plates whose
movements are more difficult to determine.

Fig 1.17 Plate

boundaries in the
Earth’s crust
z Oceanic plate is covered by a thin oceanic crust, mainly
basaltic in composition and having a thin covering of
sediments (Fig. 1.18). The term plate tectonics came to be
used to denote the processes involved in the movements and
interactions of the plates ('tectonic' is derived from Greek
tekton, a builder). Where two continental plates have
converged, with the formation of a belt of intercontinental fold
mountains such as the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, the
term collision zone can be used.

Fig 1.18 Generalized cross-section across the western Atlantic: based on Dewey and
Bird (1970)
zThe formation of new sea-floor at
oceanic ridges, discussed earlier,
involves the separation of
continents and thus an increase of
the area of ocean floor. This
increase is balanced by the
destruction of plate by subduction,
where oceanic crust is carried into
the mantle and consumed Fig 1.19 Diagrammatic section through an ocean
(compare Figs 1.19 and 1.20). It trench and its relation to subduction of an oceanic
plate
has been shown that at a
subduction zone, earthquakes are
generated at deep foci (more than
300 km below the surface) and
are related to inclined planes
dipping at angles around 30° to
40° beneath the continental
margin (Benioff, 1954). Such
planes intersect the ocean floor at
Fig 1.20 Generalized cross-section across
the deep trenches bordered by Japan, based on Miyashiro (1970)
island arcs (Benioff zones, Fig.
1.20).
z
The Earth and other members of the Solar System are
believed to have been formed about 4600 million years ago by
condensation from a flattened rotating cloud of gas and dust.
This contracted slowly, giving rise to the primitive Sun at its
centre - a new star - surrounded by a mass of cosmic gases in
which local condensations generated the planets. They, and
other bodies such as the asteroids and meteorites, all revolve
in the same direction in orbits around the Sun. The cold
primitive Earth became gradually heated as its interior was
compressed by the increasing weight of accumulated matter
and by the decay of natural radioactive materials. Heat was
produced more quickly than it could escape from the
compressed mass, resulting in the melting of some
constituents and heavier matter being drawn by gravity
towards the Earth's centre. The planet thus gradually acquired
a core, surrounded by a mantle of less dense material, and an
outer crust
Earth processes and
z

their engineering
z

importance
z Earth processes and their engineering importance

 Role of the Engineer in the Systematic Exploration

of a Site

The investigation of the suitability and characteristics of

sites as they affect the design and construction of civil
engineering works and the security of neighboring structures
is laid out in British Standard Code of Practice for site
investigations (BS 5930:1981, formerly CP 2001). The
sections on geology and site exploration define the
minimum that a professional engineer should know.
z The systematic exploration and investigation of a new site
may involve five stages of procedure. These stages are:

1. preliminary investigation using published information and

other existing data;

2. a detailed geological survey of the site, possibly with a

photogeology study;

3. applied geophysical surveys to provide information about

the subsurface geology;

4. boring, drilling and excavation to provide confirmation of

the previous results, and quantitative detail, at critical points
on the site; and

5. testing of soils and rocks to assess their suitability,

particularly their mechanical properties (soil mechanics and
rock mechanics), either in situ or from samples.
z
In a major engineering project, each of these stages might be
carried out and reported on by a consultant specializing in
geology, geophysics or engineering (with a detailed knowledge
of soil or rock mechanics). However, even where the services
of a specialist consultant are employed, an engineer will have
overall supervision and responsibility for the project.

The engineer must therefore have enough understanding of

geology to know how and when to use the expert knowledge
of consultants, and to be able to read their reports intelligently,
judge their reliability, and appreciate how the conditions
described might affect the project. In some cases, the
engineer can recognize common rock types and simple
geological structures and knows where he can obtain
geological information for his preliminary investigation.
z
When reading reports, or studying geological maps, he/she
must have a complete understanding of the meaning of
geological terms and be able to grasp geological concepts and
arguments.

The systematic testing of the engineering properties of soils

and rocks lies between classical geology and the older
disciplines of engineering, such as structures. It has attracted
the interest of, and contributions from, people with a first
training in either geology or engineering but has developed
largely within departments of civil and mining engineering and
is usually taught by staff there.
z
 Relevance of Geology to Civil Engineering

Most civil engineering projects involve some excavation

of soils and rocks or involve loading the Earth by
building on it. In some cases, the excavated rocks may
be used as constructional material, and in others, rocks
may form a major part of the finished product, such as
a motorway cutting or the site for a reservoir.

The feasibility, the planning and design, the

construction and costing, and the safety of a project
may depend critically on the geological conditions
where the construction will take place. This is
especially the case in extended ‘greenfield’ sites, where
the area affected by the project stretches for
kilometers, across comparatively undeveloped ground.
z
Examples include the Channel Tunnel project and the
construction of motorways. In a section of the M9 motorway
linking Edinburgh and Stirling that crosses abandoned oil-
shale workings, realignment of the road, on the advice of
government geologists, led to a substantial saving.

In modest projects, or in those involving the redevelopment of

a limited site, the demands on the geological knowledge of the
engineer or the need for geological advice will be less, but are
never negligible. Site investigation by boring and by testing
samples may be an adequate preliminary to construction in
such cases.
z  The Science of Geology

Geology is the study of the solid Earth. It includes the

investigation of the rocks forming the Earth (petrology)
and of how they are distributed (their structure), and
their constituents (mineralogy and crystallography).

Geochemistry is a study of the chemistry of rocks and

the distribution of major and trace elements in rocks,
rock suites, and minerals. This can lead to an
understanding of how a particular rock has originated
(petro genesis), and also, in the broadest sense, to a
knowledge of the chemistry of the upper layers of the
Earth.
z
The distribution of rocks at the Earth’s surface is found by
making a geological survey (that is, by geological mapping)
and is recorded on geological maps. This information about
rocks is superimposed on a topographic base map.

Knowledge of the nature and physical conditions of the deeper

levels of the planet can be gained only by the special methods
of geophysics, the twin science of geology; the term ‘Earth
sciences’ embraces both. From the theory and methods of
geophysics, a set of techniques (applied geophysics) has
been evolved for exploring the distribution of rocks of
shallower levels where the interests of geologists and
geophysicists are most intertwined.
z
‘Knowledge of the Earth’ at the present time raises questions
about the processes that have formed it in the past: that is,
about its history. The interpretation of rock layers as Earth
history is called stratigraphy, and a study of the processes
leading to the formation of sedimentary rocks is called
sedimentology.

The study of fossils (palaeontology) is closely linked to Earth

history, and from both has come the understanding of the
development of life on our planet. The insight thus gained,
into expanses of time stretching back over thousands of
millions of years, into the origins of life and into the evolution
of man, is geology’s main contribution to scientific philosophy
and to the ideas of educated men and women.
z  Earth Processes: Natural Occurrences which
Shape Our Planet; Effects on Environment &
Engineering Projects

Earth processes are natural occurrences on Earth that

shape and reshape our planet. They range from geological
events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and
landslides to atmospheric changes like hurricanes,
tornadoes, and floods. These processes have a major effect
on the environment we live in and plays a destructive role in
engineering activities.
z • Earthquakes

A sudden release of
energy caused by the
shifting of rocks along
a fault line.

Effects: Damage to
infrastructure and
property, disruption of
services, loss of life

Engineering Uses:
Earthquake-resistant
designs/structures to
minimize damage
z • Volcanic Eruptions

A geological event in which

molten rock (magma) is ejected
from the Earth’s crust through an
opening in the surface.

Effects: Destruction of nearby

structures and landforms;
release of toxic gases and ash
into atmosphere

Engineering Uses: Improved

monitoring systems to detect
volcanic activity early on &
create evacuation plans
z•
Landslides

The sudden movement of large

masses of soil or rock down a
slope.

Effects: Damage to infrastructure

and property, disruption of
services, loss of life

Engineering Uses: Improved

mapping technologies to identify
areas at risk for landslides;
improved construction
techniques to reduce landslide
risk
z • Hurricanes

A large storm system

characterized by strong winds
and heavy rains that form over
warm ocean waters in the tropics.

Effects: Flooding, destruction of

buildings/infrastructure, power
outages

Engineering Uses: Improved

building designs & materials to
withstand hurricane-force winds;
improved drainage systems &
levees for flood mitigation
z • Tornadoes

A violently rotating column of

air extending from a
thunderstorm cloud towards
the ground.

Effects: Destruction of
buildings/infrastructure, power
outages, disruption of services

Engineering Uses: Improved

building designs & materials
to withstand tornado-force
winds; improved warning
systems for early detection
z • Floods

An overflow of water that

submerges land which is
usually dry.

Effects: Damage to
infrastructure and property,
displacement of people

Engineering Uses: Improved

drainage systems; levees &
dams to control flooding;
improved mapping
technologies to identify areas
at risk for floods
z Earth processes have a major effect on our environment
and can lead to destruction and loss of life if not properly
managed. However, they also present opportunities for
engineering projects that can help mitigate the effects of
these natural disasters.
Origin and
z

Occurrence of
z

Earthquake
z
Origin and Occurrence of Earthquake

An earthquake is any sudden shaking of the ground caused

by the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks.
Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy
stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when
masses of rock straining against one another suddenly
fracture and “slip.”

Little was understood about earthquakes until the emergence

of seismology at the beginning of the 20th century.
Seismology, which involves the scientific study of all aspects
of earthquakes, has yielded answers to such long-standing
questions as why and how earthquakes occur.
z
 What causes an Earthquake

Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy

within some limited region of the rocks of the Earth. The
energy can be released by elastic strain, gravity, chemical
reactions, or even the motion of massive bodies.

Of all these, the release of elastic strain is the most important

cause, because this form of energy is the only kind that can be
stored in sufficient quantity in the Earth to produce major
disturbances. Earthquakes associated with this type of energy
release are called tectonic earthquakes.
z Stresses acting on a
rock causes the rock
to deform by bending.
This stores energy as
the strain builds over a
long period of time.
Finally, the strength of
the rock is exceeded
and it abruptly
ruptures, releasing
energy in the form of
an earthquake waves
as the rocks on either
side of the fault
rebound to their
original undeformed
shape.
z Tectonic earthquakes are explained by the so-called elastic
rebound theory, formulated by the American geologist
Harry Fielding Reid after the San Andreas Fault ruptured in
1906, generating the great San Francisco earthquake.

According to the theory, a tectonic earthquake occurs when

strains in rock masses have accumulated to a point where
the resulting stresses exceed the strength of the rocks, and
sudden fracturing results.
zEarthquakes have
different properties
depending on the
type of fault slip that
causes them (as
shown in the figure).
The usual fault model
has a “strike” (that is,
the direction from
north taken by a
horizontal line in the
fault plane) and a The lower wall of an inclined fault is called
“dip” (the angle from the footwall. Lying over the footwall is the
the horizontal shown hanging wall. When rock masses slip past
by the steepest slope each other parallel to the strike, the
in the fault). movement is known as strike-slip faulting.
z Movement parallel to the dip is called dip-slip faulting. Strike-
slip faults are right lateral or left lateral, depending on
whether the block on the opposite side of the fault from an
observer has moved to the right or left. In dip-slip faults, if the
hanging-wall block moves downward relative to the footwall
block, it is called “normal” faulting; the opposite motion, with
the hanging wall moving upward relative to the footwall,
produces reverse or thrust faulting.
Mode of Occurrence
z

– Prospecting and
z

Groundwater
z
Mode of Occurrence – Prospecting and Groundwater

 Groundwater
z
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface
in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A
unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer
when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at
which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock
become completely saturated with water is called the water
table.

Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may

discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps
and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often
withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by
constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of
the distribution and movement of groundwater is
hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.
z Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through
shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain
soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very
low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation
water.

Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can

possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much
of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be
mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater may
not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the
landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by
groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also
exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa.
z Aquifer

An aquifer is a layer of
porous substrate that
contains and transmits
groundwater. When water
can flow directly between the
surface and the saturated
zone of an aquifer, the
aquifer is unconfined. The
deeper parts of unconfined The upper level of this saturated layer of
aquifers are usually more an unconfined aquifer is called the water
saturated since gravity table or phreatic surface. Below the water
causes water to flow table, where in general all pore spaces
downward. are saturated with water, is the phreatic
zone. Substrate with low porosity that
permits limited transmission of
groundwater is known as an aquitard.
z An aquiclude is a substrate with porosity that is so low it is
virtually impermeable to groundwater.

A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively

impermeable layer of rock or substrate such as an aquiclude or
aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from
its recharge zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it
flows. This can create artesian wells that flow freely without the
need of a pump and rise to a higher elevation than the static
water table at the above, unconfined, aquifer.
z The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and
structure of the substrate and topography in which they occur.
In general, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary
geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured
crystalline rocks yield smaller quantities of groundwater in
many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented
alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley-filling
sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding
structural basins are included among the most productive
sources of groundwater.
z The volume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated
by measuring water levels in local wells and by examining
geologic records from well-drilling to determine the extent,
depth and thickness of water-bearing sediments and
rocks. Before an investment is made in production wells,
test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at which
water is encountered and collect samples of soils, rock
and water for laboratory analyses. Pumping tests can be
performed in test wells to determine flow characteristics of
the aquifer.
z  Water cycle

Groundwater makes up about thirty percent of the world's

fresh water supply, which is about 0.76% of the entire world's
water, including oceans and permanent ice.

Global groundwater storage is roughly equal to the total

amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack,
including the north and south poles. This makes it an
important resource that can act as a natural storage that can
buffer against shortages of surface water, as in during times of
drought.
z Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from
precipitation, streams, and rivers when this recharge reaches
the water table.

Groundwater can be a long-term 'reservoir' of the natural

water cycle (with residence times from days to millennia), as
opposed to short-term water reservoirs like the atmosphere
and fresh surface water (which have residence times from
minutes to years). The figure shows how deep groundwater
(which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a
very long time to complete its natural cycle.
z The Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one
of the largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending
for almost 2 million sq km. By analyzing the trace elements in
water sourced from deep underground, hydrogeologists have
been able to determine that water extracted from these aquifers
can be more than 1 million years old.

By comparing the age of groundwater obtained from different

parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydrogeologists have found it
increases in age across the basin. Where water recharges the
aquifers along the Eastern Divide, ages are young. As
groundwater flows westward across the continent, it increases
in age, with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western
parts. This means that in order to have travelled almost 1000 km
from the source of recharge in 1 million years, the groundwater
flowing through the Great Artesian Basin travels at an average
rate of about 1 meter per year.
z Recent research has demonstrated that evaporation of
groundwater can play a significant role in the local water cycle,
especially in arid regions. Scientists in Saudi Arabia have
proposed plans to recapture and recycle this evaporative
moisture for crop irrigation. In the opposite photo, a 50-
centimeter-square reflective carpet, made of small adjacent
plastic cones, was placed in a plant-free dry desert area for five
months, without rain or irrigation. It managed to capture and
condense enough ground vapor to bring to life naturally buried
seeds underneath it, with a green area of about 10% of the
carpet area. It is expected that, if seeds were put down before
placing this carpet, a much wider area would become green.
z

THANK YOU! 