Biochemical Energy Production

Section 23.
Metabolism
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Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 1

Chapter 23
Chapter Outline
23.1 Metabolism
23.2 Metabolism and cell structure
23.3 Important nucleotide-containing compounds in metabolic pathway
s
23.4 Important carboxylate ions in metabolic pathways
23.5 High-energy phosphate compounds
23.6 An overview of biochemical energy production
23.7 The citric acid cycle
23.8 The electron transport chain
23.9 Oxidative phosphorylation
23.10 ATP production for the common metabolic pathway
23.11 Non-ETC oxygen-consuming reactions
23.12 B vitamins and the common metabolic pathway
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
Metabolism
• Sum total of all chemical reactions in a living
organism
• Source of energy for the functioning of the
human body
• Also needed for many of the cellular processes
such as protein synthesis, DNA replication, RNA
transcription, and membrane transport
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
Subtypes of Metabolic Reactions

• Catabolism: All metabolic reactions in which
large biochemical molecules are broken down to
smaller ones
– Usually energy is released in these reactions
– Example: Oxidation of glucose
• Anabolism: All metabolic reactions in which
small biochemical molecules are joined to form
larger ones
– Usually require energy
– Example: Synthesis of proteins
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
Figure 23.1 - The Processes of Catabolism and

Anabolism
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
Metabolic Pathway
• Series of consecutive biochemical reactions
used to convert a starting material into an end
product
• There are two types of metabolic pathways:
– Linear
– Cyclic
• Major pathways for all forms of life are similar
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
Practice Exercise
Classify each of the following chemical processes

as anabolic or catabolic.
a.Synthesis of a protein from amino acids
b.Formation of a triacylglycerol from glycerol and fatty acids
c.Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide to monosaccharides
d.Formation of a nucleic acid from nucleotides
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
Practice Exercise
Classify each of the following chemical processes

as anabolic or catabolic.
a.Synthesis of a protein from amino acids

Anabolic
b.Formation of a triacylglycerol from glycerol and fatty acids
Anabolic
c.Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide to monosaccharides
Catabolic
d.Formation of a nucleic acid from nucleotides
Anabolic
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
What are the two types of metabolic reactions?
a.Anabolism and catabolism

b.Enzyme catalyzed and non-enzyme catalyzed
c.Synthetic and non-synthetic
d.Cofactor enhanced and coenzyme enhanced
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Section 23.1
Metabolism
What are the two types of metabolic reactions?
a.Anabolism and catabolism

b.Enzyme catalyzed and non-enzyme catalyzed
c.Synthetic and non-synthetic
d.Cofactor enhanced and coenzyme enhanced
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Section 23.2
Metabolism and Cell Structure
• Knowledge of the cell structure is essential for

understanding metabolism
• Prokaryotic cell:
– No nucleus and found only in bacteria
– Presence of a single circular DNA molecule near the
center of the cell called nucleoid
• Eukaryotic cell: Cell where the DNA is found in
a membrane-enclosed nucleus
– About 1000 times larger than bacterial cells
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Section 23.2
Figure 23.3 - Schematic Representation of a Eukaryotic

Cell
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Section 23.2
Eukaryotic Cell Organelles and Their Function

• Plasma membrane - Cellular boundary
• Cytoplasm: Water-based material of a
eukaryotic cell
• Mitochondrion: Generates most of the energy
needed for a cell
• Lysosome: Contains hydrolytic enzymes
needed for cell rebuilding, repair, and
degradation
• Ribosome - Site for protein synthesis
• Nucleus - Site where DNA is found
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Section 23.2
Mitochondrion
• An organelle that is responsible for the
generation of most of the energy for a cell
– Outer membrane - Permeable to small molecules
• 50% lipid and 50% protein
– Inner membrane - Highly impermeable to most
substances
• 20% lipid and 80% protein
• Folded to increase surface area
• Synthesis of ATP occurs here
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Section 23.2
What cellular organelle is responsible for the

generation of most of the energy for the cell?
a.Lysosome
b.Mitochondrion
c.Ribosomes
d.Nucleus
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Section 23.2
What cellular organelle is responsible for the

generation of most of the energy for the cell?
a.Lysosome
b.Mitochondrion
c.Ribosomes
d.Nucleus
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Section 23.3
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways
Adenosine Phosphates (ATP, ADP, and AMP)
• Adenosine phosphates of interest:

– Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) - One phosphate
group
• Structural component of RNA
– Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - Two phosphate groups
• Key component of metabolic pathways
– Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - Three phosphate
groups
• Key component of metabolic pathways
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Section 23.3
• A phosphoryl group is derived from a phosphate

ion when it becomes part of another molecule
ATP + H 2O 
 ADP + Pi + H + + energy
ADP + H 2 O 
 AMP + Pi + H + + energy
ATP + 2H 2O 
 AMP + 2Pi + 2H + + energy
• The net energy produced in these reactions is

used for cellular reactions
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Section 23.3
• In cellular reactions, ATP functions as both a

source of a phosphate group and a source of
energy
– Example: Conversion of glucose to glucose-6-
phosphate
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Section 23.3
Role of Other Nucleotide Triphosphates in Metabolism

• Uridine triphosphate (UTP) - Involved in
carbohydrate metabolism
• Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) - Involved in
protein and carbohydrate metabolism
• Cytidine triphosphate (CTP) - Involved in lipid
metabolism
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Section 23.3
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)

• Coenzyme required in numerous metabolic
redox reactions
– Flavin subunit is the active form which gains H atoms
when FAD is converted to FADH2
– Ribitol is a reduced form of the sugar ribose
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Section 23.3
Figure 23.6 - Structural Formulas of FAD and NAD+
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Section 23.3
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)

• FAD is the oxidized form
• FADH2 is the reduced form
• In enzyme reactions, FAD goes back and forth
from oxidized to reduced form
• Typical cellular reaction in which FAD serves as
oxidizing agent involves conversion of an alkane
to an alkene
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Section 23.3
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)

• Has coenzyme functions in metabolic redox
pathways
• NAD+ is the oxidized form of NAD
• NADH is reduced form
• Typical cellular reaction in which NAD+ serves as
the oxidizing agent is the oxidation of a secondary
alcohol to give a ketone
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Section 23.3
Subunit Structures of NAD

• 3-subunit structure:
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Section 23.3
Coenzyme A
• Derivative of vitamin B pantothenic acid
• Active form of coenzyme A is the sulfhydryl
group (–SH group) in the ethanethiol subunit of
the coenzyme
• Acetyl-CoA - Formed when acetyl group bonds
to CoA–SH via a thioester bond
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Section 23.3
Coenzyme A Subunit Structures

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Section 23.3
Classification of Metabolic Intermediate Compounds

• Metabolic intermediate compounds can be
classified into three groups based on their
functions
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Section 23.3
What intermediate molecule in metabolic reactions

is responsible for producing energy in the human
body?
a.AMP
b.ADP
c.ATP
d.NADH
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Section 23.3
What intermediate molecule in metabolic reactions

is responsible for producing energy in the human
body?
a.AMP
b.ADP
c.ATP
d.NADH
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Section 23.3
Why is ATP the best energy source for human

beings?
a.It makes better substrates for enzymes than any of the

other energy molecule.
b.It has an intermediate value in free energy, and it
undergoes slow hydrolysis in an aqueous environment.
c.The bonds in ATP are more easily broken during enzyme-
catalyzed reactions.
d.It has an intermediate value in free energy, and it
undergoes rapid hydrolysis in an aqueous environment.
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Section 23.3
Why is ATP the best energy source for human

beings?
a.It makes better substrates for enzymes than any of the

other energy molecule.
b.It has an intermediate value in free energy, and it
undergoes slow hydrolysis in an aqueous environment.
c.The bonds in ATP are more easily broken during enzyme-
catalyzed reactions.
d.It has an intermediate value in free energy, and it
undergoes rapid hydrolysis in an aqueous environment.
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Section 23.4
Important Carboxylate Ions in Metabolic Pathways
Carboxylate Ions (Metabolic Acids)

• Polyfunctional acids formed as intermediates of
metabolic reactions
• There are 5 such acids that serve as substrates
for enzymes in metabolic reactions:
− 3 succinic acid derivatives (C4 diacid)
− Fumarate, oxaloacetate, and malate
− 2 glutaric acid derivatives (C5 diacid)
− a-ketoglutarate and citrate
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Section 23.4
Figure 23.9 - Structural Formulas for Polyfunctional

Carboxylate Ions
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Section 23.4
Which of the following structural descriptions for

metabolic carboxylate ions that are derivatives of
succinic acid is incorrect?
a.Malate contains a hydroxyl group and two carboxyl

groups.
b.Oxaloacetate contains a keto group and has a 22 charge.
c.Fumarate contains a carbon–carbon double bond in a cis
configuration.
d.None of the above.
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Section 23.4
Which of the following structural descriptions for

metabolic carboxylate ions that are derivatives of
succinic acid is incorrect?
a.Malate contains a hydroxyl group and two carboxyl

groups.
b.Oxaloacetate contains a keto group and has a 22 charge.
c.Fumarate contains a carbon–carbon double bond in a cis
configuration.
d.None of the above.
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Section 23.5
High-Energy Phosphate Compounds
• Several phosphate-containing compounds found

in metabolic pathways are known as high-energy
compounds
• High-energy compounds: Have greater free
energy of hydrolysis than a typical compound
– They contain at least one reactive bond called
strained bond
• Energy to break these bonds is less than a normal
bond
• More negative the free energy of hydrolysis, greater
the bond strain
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Section 23.5
• Typically the free-energy release is greater than

6.0 kcal/mole (indicative of bond strain)
• Strained bonds are represented by the sign ~
(squiggle)
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Section 23.5
Table 23.1 - Free Energies of Hydrolysis of Common

Phosphate-Containing Metabolic Compounds
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Section 23.5
Table 23.1 - Free Energies of Hydrolysis of Common

Phosphate-Containing Metabolic Compounds
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Section 23.5
How many “strained” bonds are present in an ATP

molecule?
a.One
b.Two
c.Three
d.None of the above
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Section 23.5
How many “strained” bonds are present in an ATP

molecule?
a.One
b.Two
c.Three
d.None of the above
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Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production
• Energy needed to run the human body is

obtained from food via a multistep process
involving several different catabolic pathways
• There are four general stages in the biochemical
energy production process:
– Stage 1: Digestion
– Stage 2: Acetyl group formation
– Stage 3: Citric acid cycle
– Stage 4: Electron transport chain and oxidative
phosphorylation
• Each stage also involves numerous reactions
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Section 23.6
Stage 1: Digestion
• Begins in mouth (saliva contains starch-
digesting enzymes), continues in the stomach
(gastric juices), and is completed in small
intestine
– Results in small molecules that can cross intestinal
membrane into the blood stream
• End products which are absorbed and
transported to blood cells:
– Glucose and monosaccharides from carbohydrates
– Amino acids from proteins
– Fatty acids and glycerol from fats and oils Return to TOC

Section 23.6
Stage 2: Acetyl Group Formation

• The small molecules from Stage 1 are further
oxidized
• End product of these oxidations is acetyl CoA
and reduced coenzyme NADH
• This stage involves numerous reactions which
occur both in the cytosol as well as the
mitochondria of the cells
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Section 23.6
Stage 3: Citric Acid Cycle

• Takes place inside the mitochondria
• Acetyl group is oxidized to produce CO and energy

2
• Some energy produced in this stage is lost in the form of heat
– Most energy is trapped in reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH

2
• The carbon dioxide we exhale comes primarily from this stage
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Section 23.6
Stage 4: Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative

Phosphorylation
• Takes place in mitochondria
• NADH and FADH2 are oxidized to release H ions
and electrons
– Needed for the production of ATP, primary energy
carrier in metabolic pathways
• O2 inhaled is converted into H2O in this stage
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Section 23.6
What are the stages of energy production in the

order of occurrence?
a.Digestion, the citric acid cycle, acetyl group formation,

and electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
b.Digestion, acetyl group formation, electron transport
chain and oxidative phosphorylation, and the citric acid
cycle
c.Digestion, acetyl group formation, the citric acid cycle,
and electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
d.Digestion, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport and
oxidative phosphorylation
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Section 23.6
What are the stages of energy production in the

order of occurrence?
a.Digestion, the citric acid cycle, acetyl group formation,

and electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
b.Digestion, acetyl group formation, electron transport
chain and oxidative phosphorylation, and the citric acid
cycle
c.Digestion, acetyl group formation, the citric acid cycle,
and electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
d.Digestion, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport and
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Section 23.7
The Citric Acid Cycle
Citric Acid Cycle - An Introduction

• Is the series of biochemical reactions in which
the acetyl portion of acetyl CoA is oxidized to
carbon dioxide and the reduced coenzymes
FADH2 and NADH are produced
• Also know as:
– Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) - Presence of three
carboxylate groups in citric acid
– Krebs cycle - Named after Hans Krebs who
elucidated this pathway
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Section 23.7
Citric Acid Cycle - An Introduction

• Important reactions in the citric acid cycle
include:
– Reduction of NAD+ and FAD to produce NADH and
FADH2
– Decarboxylation of citric acid to produce carbon
dioxide
• Summary of citric acid cycle reactions:
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Section 23.7
Figure 23.11 - The Citric Acid Cycle
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Section 23.7
Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle

• Step 1: Formation of citrate
• Step 2: Formation of isocitrate
• Step 3: Oxidation of isocitrate and formation of
CO2
– Involves oxidation–reduction as well as
decarboxylation
• Step 4: Oxidation of α-ketoglutarate and
formation of CO2
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Section 23.7
Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle

• Step 5: Thioester bond cleavage in succinyl CoA
and phosphorylation of GDP
• Step 6: Oxidation of succinate
• Step 7: Hydration of fumarate
• Step 8: Oxidation of L-Malate to regenerate
oxaloacetate
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Section 23.7
Practice Exercise
When one acetyl CoA is processed through the citric acid cycle, how many times does
each of the following events occur?
a. A FAD molecule is a reactant.
b. A CoA-SH molecule is produced.
c. A dehydrogenase enzyme is needed for the reaction to occur.
d. A C molecule is produced.
5
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Section 23.7
Practice Exercise
When one acetyl CoA is processed through the citric acid cycle, how many times does
each of the following events occur?
a. A FAD molecule is a reactant. One (Step 6)
b. A CoA-SH molecule is produced. Two (Steps 1 and 5)
c. A dehydrogenase enzyme is needed for the reaction to occur. Four (Steps 3,4,6, and 8)
d. A C molecule is produced. One (Step 3)

5
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Section 23.7
Regulation of the Citric Acid Cycle

• The rate at which the citric acid cycle operates is
controlled by the body’s need for ATP
– When ATP supply is high, ATP inhibits citrate
synthase (Step 1 of the cycle)
– When ATP levels are low, ADP activates citrate
synthase
• Similarly, ADP and NADH control isocitrate
dehydrogenase
– NADH acts as an inhibitor
– ADP acts as an activator
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Section 23.7
How many high-energy molecules are formed in

one turn of the citric acid cycle?
a.2 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 1 GTP

b.3 NADH and 2 FADH2
c.3 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 1 GTP
d.3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP
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Section 23.7
How many high-energy molecules are formed in

one turn of the citric acid cycle?
a.2 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 1 GTP

b.3 NADH and 2 FADH2
c.3 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 1 GTP
d.3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP
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Section 23.8
The Electron Transport Chain
The Electron Transport Chain - An Introduction

• Series of biochemical reactions in which
intermediate carriers aid the transfer of electrons
and hydrogen ions from NADH and FADH2
– Ultimately react with molecular oxygen to give H2O
• Lost energy is used to synthesize ATP in
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Section 23.8
Enzyme and Electron Carriers for ETC

• Located along inner mitochondrial membrane
• Organized into four distinct protein complexes
and two mobile carriers
– Protein complexes tightly bound to membrane:
• Complex I: NADH–coenzyme Q reductase
• Complex II: Succinate–coenzyme Q reductase
• Complex III: Coenzyme Q–cytochrome c reductase
• Complex IV: Cytochrome c oxidase
– Two mobile electron carriers:
• Coenzyme Q and cytochrome c
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Section 23.8
Complex I: NADH–Coenzyme Q Reductase

• NADH from citric acid cycle is the source of
electrons processed via this complex
• It contains > 40 subunits including flavin
mononucleotide (FMN) and several iron–sulfur
protein clusters (FeSP)
• Net result is the transfer of electrons from NADH
to coenzyme Q (CoQ)
– Several intermediate carriers are involved in this
electron transfer
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Section 23.8
Complex II: Succinate–Coenzyme Q Reductase

• Smaller than complex I
• Contains only four subunits including two FeSPs
• Succinate is converted to fumarate via this
complex
• This complex processes FADH2
– CoQ is the final recipient of the electrons from FADH2
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Section 23.8
Complex III: Coenzyme Q–Cytochrome c Reductase

• Contains 11 different subunits
• Several FeSP proteins and cytochromes are
electron carriers in this complex
– Cytochrome: Heme iron protein in which reversible
oxidation of an iron atom occurs
• Various cytochromes, cyt a, cyt b, cyt c, and so
on, differ from each other in:
– Their protein constituents
– The manner in which the heme is bonded to the
protein
– Attachments to the heme ring Return to TOC

Section 23.8
Complex IV: Cytochrome c Oxidase

• Contains 13 subunits including two cytochromes
• The electrons flow from cyt c to cyt a to cyt a 3
• In the final stage of electron transfer, the
electrons from cyt a3 and hydrogen ions combine
with oxygen (O2) to form water
O 2 + 4H + 4e 
+ -
 2H 2 O
• It is estimated that 95% of the oxygen used by

cells serves as the final electron acceptor for the
ETC Return to TOC

Section 23.8
Summary of the Flow of Electrons Through the Four

Complexes of the Electron Transport Chain
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Section 23.8
Practice Exercise
With which of the four complexes in the electron transport
chains is each of the following events associated? (There
may be more than one correct answer in a given situation.)
a.The metal iron is present in the form of Fe 2+ and Fe3+ ions.
b.FADH2 is needed as a reactant.
c.The metal copper is present in the form of Cu + and Cu2+ ions.
d.Cytochromes are needed as reactants.

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Section 23.8
Practice Exercise
With which of the four complexes in the electron transport
chains is each of the following events associated? (There
may be more than one correct answer in a given situation.)
a.The metal iron is present in the form of Fe 2+ and Fe3+ ions.

Complexes I, II, III, and IV
b.FADH2 is needed as a reactant.
Complex II
c.The metal copper is present in the form of Cu + and Cu2+ ions.
Complex IV
d.Cytochromes are needed as reactants. Complexes III and IV
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Section 23.8
Which statement best describes the electron

transport chain?
a.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which electrons are

passed to intermediate carriers to produce energy as the final
product.
b.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which electrons and
hydrogen ions from NADH and FADH2 are passed to
intermediate carriers that eventually react with molecular oxygen
to produce water.
c.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which hydrogen ions
are passed to intermediates for the production of energy.
d.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which electrons and
hydrogen ions are used to produce energy. Return to TOC

Section 23.8
Which statement best describes the electron

transport chain?
a.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which electrons are

passed to intermediate carriers to produce energy as the final
product.
b.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which electrons and
hydrogen ions from NADH and FADH2 are passed to
intermediate carriers that eventually react with molecular oxygen
to produce water.
c.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which hydrogen ions
are passed to intermediates for the production of energy.
d.It is a series of biochemical reactions in which electrons and
hydrogen ions are used to produce energy. Return to TOC

Section 23.9
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation - An Introduction

• Oxidative phosphorylation: Process by which
ATP is synthesized from ADP using the energy
released in the electron transport chain
– Can be coupled reactions
• Coupled reactions: Pairs of biochemical
reactions that occur concurrently in which
energy released by one reaction is used in the
other reaction
– Examples: Oxidative phosphorylation and the
oxidation reactions of the electron transport chain
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Section 23.9
Oxidative Phosphorylation - An Introduction

• Coupling of ATP synthesis with the reactions of
the ETC is related to the movement of protons
(H+ ions) across the inner mitochondrial
membrane
• Complexes I, III, and IV of ETC chain have a
second function
– Serve as “proton pumps” transferring protons from the
matrix side of the inner mitochondrial membrane to
the intermembrane space
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Section 23.9
• For every two electrons passed through ETC,

four protons cross the inner mitochondrial
membrane through complex I, four through
complex III, and two more though complex IV
• This proton flow causes a buildup of H+ in the
intermembrane space
• This high concentration of protons passing
through ATP synthase becomes the basis for
the ATP synthesis
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Section 23.9
Figure 23.18 - A Second Function for Protein

Complexes I, III, and IV
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Section 23.9
What main event in oxidative phosphorylation is

responsible for ATP production?
a.The movement of protons from a region of low to high

concentration through a channel in membrane-bound ATP
synthase, resulting in ATP formation
b.The movement of protons from a region of high to low
concentration through enzyme complexes called ATP synthase,
resulting in ATP formation
c.The movement of electrons from a region of high to low
d.The difference in concentration, which constitutes an
electrochemical gradient, resulting in ATP formation Return to TOC

Section 23.9
What main event in oxidative phosphorylation is

responsible for ATP production?
a.The movement of protons from a region of low to high

b.The movement of protons from a region of high to low
concentration through enzyme complexes called ATP synthase,
resulting in ATP formation
c.The movement of electrons from a region of high to low
d.The difference in concentration, which constitutes an
electrochemical gradient, resulting in ATP formation Return to TOC

Section 23.10
ATP Production for the Common Metabolic Pathway
ATP Formation
• For each mole of NADH oxidized in the ETC, 2.5
moles of ATP are formed
• For each mole of FADH2 oxidized in the ETC,
only 1.5 moles of ATP are formed
• For each mole of GTP hydrolyzed, one mole of
ATP is formed
• Ten molecules of ATP are produced for each
acetyl CoA catabolized
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Section 23.10
How many moles of ATP are formed for each mole

of NADH and FADH2?
a.1.0 and 2.0

b.1.5 and 2.5
c.2.0 and 1.0
d.2.5 and 1.5
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Section 23.10
How many moles of ATP are formed for each mole

of NADH and FADH2?
a.1.0 and 2.0

b.1.5 and 2.5
c.2.0 and 1.0
d.2.5 and 1.5
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Section 23.10
How many moles of ATP are ultimately produced

from the “processing” of one mole of acetyl CoA
molecules through the common metabolic
pathway?
a.8
b.10
c.24
d.None of the above
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Section 23.10
How many moles of ATP are ultimately produced

from the “processing” of one mole of acetyl CoA
molecules through the common metabolic
pathway?
a.8
b.10
c.24
d.None of the above
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Section 23.11
Non-ETC Oxygen-Consuming Reactions
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

• >90% of inhaled oxygen via respiration is
consumed during oxidative phosphorylation
• Remaining O2 is converted to several highly
reactive oxygen species (ROS) within the body,
which include:
– Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
– Superoxide ion (O2-)
– Hydroxyl radical (OH)
• Superoxide ion and hydroxyl radicals have an unpaired
electron
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Section 23.11

• Can also be formed due to external influences
such as polluted air, cigarette smoke, and
radiation exposure
• Are both beneficial as well as problematic within
the body
• Example: White blood cells produce a significant
amount of superoxide free radicals via the
following reaction to destroy the invading
bacteria and viruses
2O 2 + NADPH 
 2O2 - + NADP+ + H+
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Section 23.11

• ROS formed are quickly converted to non-toxic
species
superoxide
2O 2 - + 2H + 
 H 2O 2 + O 2
dismutase
2H 2O 2 
catalase
 2H 2O + O 2
• About 5% of ROS escape destruction by

superoxide dismutase and catalase enzymes
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Section 23.11

• Antioxidant molecules present in the body help
trap ROS species
– Vitamin E
– Vitamin C
– Glutathione (GSH)
– Beta-carotene
• Major family of antioxidant phytochemicals are
flavonoids
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Section 23.11
What happens to unused oxygen from the electron

transport chain?
a.It is recycled in the body through the lungs.

b.It provides oxygen-rich environments for other
biochemical processes.
c.It is converted to several highly reactive oxygen species
(ROS).
d.It is recycled through the electron transport chain to
maintain an efficient environment.
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Section 23.11
What happens to unused oxygen from the electron

transport chain?
a.It is recycled in the body through the lungs.

b.It provides oxygen-rich environments for other
biochemical processes.
c.It is converted to several highly reactive oxygen species
(ROS).
d.It is recycled through the electron transport chain to
maintain an efficient environment.
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Section 23.12
B Vitamins and the Common Metabolic Pathway
• Structurally modified B vitamins function as

coenzymes in metabolic pathways
• Four B vitamins participate in various reactions:
– Niacin—as NAD+ and NADH
– Riboflavin—as FAD, FADH2, and FMN
– Thiamin—as TPP
– Pantothenic acid—as CoA
• In the absence of these B vitamins, the body
would be unable to utilize carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats as energy sources
Return to TOC

Section 23.12
How many different B vitamins participate in the

common metabolic pathway in the form of
coenzymes?
a.4
b.6
c.7
d.None of the above
Return to TOC

Section 23.12
How many different B vitamins participate in the

common metabolic pathway in the form of
coenzymes?
a.4
b.6
c.7
d.None of the above
Return to TOC

Chapter 23
Concept Question 1
White blood cells are necessary for the destruction

of invading viruses and bacteria. A significantly
concentrated species helps in this process. Identify
the species.
a.Hydrogen peroxide
b.Superoxide free radicals
c.Hydroxyl radicals
d.Ozone
Return to TOC

Chapter 23
Concept Question 1
White blood cells are necessary for the destruction

of invading viruses and bacteria. A significantly
concentrated species helps in this process. Identify
the species.
a.Hydrogen peroxide
b.Superoxide free radicals
c.Hydroxyl radicals
d.Ozone
Return to TOC

Chapter 23
Concept Question 2
Athletes have the ability to perform at high levels

of activity because of their systems’ ability to
produce large amounts of energy. How is this
possible?
a.They have an increased number of mitochondria which

are able to produce large quantities of ATP.
b.They metabolize glucose more efficiently.
c.Their citric acid cycle functions at a higher rate than a
non-athlete.
d.They eat a lot of carbohydrates prior to a competition.
Return to TOC

Chapter 23
Concept Question 2
Athletes have the ability to perform at high levels

of activity because of their systems’ ability to
produce large amounts of energy. How is this
possible?
a.They have an increased number of mitochondria which

are able to produce large quantities of ATP.
b.They metabolize glucose more efficiently.
c.Their citric acid cycle functions at a higher rate than a
non-athlete.
d.They eat a lot of carbohydrates prior to a competition.
Return to TOC

Biochemical Energy Production

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Section 23.

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 1

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Subtypes of Metabolic Reactions

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Figure 23.1 - The Processes of Catabolism and

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Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 6

Classify each of the following chemical processes

a.Synthesis of a protein from amino acids

b.Formation of a triacylglycerol from glycerol and fatty acids

c.Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide to monosaccharides

d.Formation of a nucleic acid from nucleotides

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 7

Classify each of the following chemical processes

a.Synthesis of a protein from amino acids

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 8

What are the two types of metabolic reactions?

a.Anabolism and catabolism

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What are the two types of metabolic reactions?

a.Anabolism and catabolism

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Metabolism and Cell Structure

• Knowledge of the cell structure is essential for

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Metabolism and Cell Structure

Figure 23.3 - Schematic Representation of a Eukaryotic

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Metabolism and Cell Structure

Eukaryotic Cell Organelles and Their Function

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Metabolism and Cell Structure

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Metabolism and Cell Structure

What cellular organelle is responsible for the

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Metabolism and Cell Structure

What cellular organelle is responsible for the

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Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Adenosine Phosphates (ATP, ADP, and AMP)

• Adenosine phosphates of interest:

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 17

Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

• A phosphoryl group is derived from a phosphate

• The net energy produced in these reactions is

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 18

Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

• In cellular reactions, ATP functions as both a

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 19

Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Role of Other Nucleotide Triphosphates in Metabolism

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Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)

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Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways