Lipids Metabolism

Section 25.
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 1

Chapter 25
Chapter Outline
25.1 Digestion and absorption of lipids

25.2 Triacylglycerol storage and mobilization
25.3 Glycerol metabolism
25.4 Oxidation of fatty acids
25.5 ATP production from fatty acid oxidation
25.6 Ketone bodies and ketogenesis
25.7Biosynthesis of fatty acids: Lipogenesis
25.8 Relationship between lipogenesis and citric acid cycle inter
mediates
25.9 Fate of fatty-acid-generated acetyl CoA
25.10Relationships between lipid and carbohydrate metabolism
25.11B vitamins and lipid metabolism

Section 25.1
Lipid Digestion - An Introduction

• Dietary lipids contain 98% triacylglycerols
(TAGs), which include fats and oils
• Salivary enzymes (water soluble) in the mouth
have no effect on lipids (TAGs), which are water
insoluble
• In the stomach, most, not all, TAGs change
physically to small globules or droplets called
chyme, which floats above other material
– It is a physical, not chemical, process
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Section 25.1
Lipid Digestion - The Stomach

• Starts in the stomach
– Gastric lipase enzymes hydrolyze TAG ester bonds
– About 10% of TAGs are hydrolyzed here
• High-fat foods stay in the stomach for longer time, and
a high-fat meal causes a feeling of being full for a
longer period of time
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Section 25.1
Lipid Digestion - The Intestinal cells

• Chyme enters into small intestine and is
emulsified (stabilization of colloidal suspension)
with bile salts
• Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes ester bond
linkages between fatty acid units and glycerol
– Normally two out of three fatty acids are hydrolyzed
• Fatty acids, monoacyglycerols, and bile salts
combine into small droplets called micelles
– Small enough to be absorbed through intestinal cell
membranes
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Section 25.1
Lipid Digestion - The Intestinal cells

• In the intestinal cells, monoacylglycerols and
free fatty acids are repackaged to form TAGs
• These new TAGs combine with membrane lipids
(phospholipids and cholesterol) and water-
soluble proteins to form chylomicrons
– Chylomicrons: Lipoproteins that transport TAGs from
intestinal cells, via the lymphatic system, to the
bloodstream
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Section 25.1
Lipid Digestion - The Bloodstream

• In the bloodstream, TAGs are completely
hydrolyzed by lipase enzymes
• Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the cell
and are either broken down to the acetyl CoA for
energy or repacked and stored as lipids
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Section 25.1
During digestion, triacylglycerols are converted by

lipases to _____ and _____.
a.glycerol; free fatty acids

b.diacylglycerols; free fatty acids
c.monoacylglycerols; free fatty acids
d.chylomicrons; micelles
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Section 25.1
During digestion, triacylglycerols are converted by

lipases to _____ and _____.
a.glycerol; free fatty acids

b.diacylglycerols; free fatty acids
c.monoacylglycerols; free fatty acids
d.chylomicrons; micelles
Return to TOC

Section 25.2
Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization
The Adipose Tissue

• Most cells have limited capability for TAG
storage
• TAGs are stored in specialized cells called
adipocytes found in adipose tissue
• Adipose tissue:
– Largest cells in the body where the cytoplasm is
replaced with large TAG droplets
– Located primarily beneath the skin, especially in the
abdominal region and vital organs
– Serves as an insulator against heat loss and
protection against physical shock Return to TOC

Section 25.2
Figure 25.4 - Structural Characteristics of an Adipose

Cell
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Section 25.2
Hydrolysis of TAGs
• Several hormones trigger the hydrolysis of TAGs
via:
– Activation of cAMP (activates hormone sensitive
lipase, HSL)
– Release of glycerol and fatty acids into the
bloodstream, also called triacylglycerol mobilization
• On an average, 10% of TAGs are replaced
everyday
Return to TOC

Section 25.2
TAGs and Energy Reserves

• Triacylglycerol energy reserves (fat reserves)
are the human body’s major source of stored
energy
– Energy reserves associated with protein, glycogen,
and glucose are small to very small when compared
to fat reserves
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Section 25.2
Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in adipose tissue is

triggered by hormones that stimulate _____
production within adipose cells that stimulate
lipases in these cells.
a.ATP
b.cyclic AMP (cAMP)
c.NADH
d.fatty acid
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Section 25.2
Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in adipose tissue is

triggered by hormones that stimulate _____
production within adipose cells that stimulate
lipases in these cells.
a.ATP
b.cyclic AMP (cAMP)
c.NADH
d.fatty acid
Return to TOC

Section 25.3
Glycerol Metabolism
Glycerol, After Entering the Bloodstream

• Taken to the liver or kidney and converted to
dihydroxyacetone phosphate in two steps:
– Phosphorylation of primary hydroxyl group of the
glycerol
– Oxidization of secondary alcohol group of glycerol to
a ketone
Return to TOC

Section 25.3
Glycerol Metabolism
What is the fate of the glycerol that is produced

during mobilization of triacylglycerols in adipose
cells?
a.It enters the bloodstream and is transported to joints

where it functions as a lubricant.
b.It is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, which is an
intermediate in gluconeogenesis.
c.It is converted by a two-step process to dihydroxyacetone
phosphate, which is an intermediate in glycolysis and
gluconeogenesis.
d.Both (b) and (c).
Return to TOC

Section 25.3
Glycerol Metabolism
What is the fate of the glycerol that is produced

during mobilization of triacylglycerols in adipose
cells?
a.It enters the bloodstream and is transported to joints

where it functions as a lubricant.
b.It is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, which is an
intermediate in gluconeogenesis.
c.It is converted by a two-step process to dihydroxyacetone
phosphate, which is an intermediate in glycolysis and
gluconeogenesis.
d.Both (b) and (c).
Return to TOC

Section 25.4
Oxidation of Fatty Acids
Breakdown of Fatty Acids to Produce Energy

• This process is divided into three parts:
1. Fatty acid must be activated by binding to coenzyme
A
2. Fatty acid must be transported to the mitochondrial
matrix
3. Fatty acid must be repeatedly (fatty acid spiral)
oxidized to produce acetyl CoA, FADH2, and NADH
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Section 25.4
Fatty Acid Activation

• Takes place in the outer mitochondrial
membrane
• Fatty acids react with CoA in the presence of
ATP to produce high-energy acyl CoA
• ATP is converted to AMP
Return to TOC

Section 25.4
Fatty Acid Transport

• A shuttle mechanism is involved in the transport
of acyl CoA from mitochondrial membrane to
mitochondrial matrix
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Section 25.4
Reactions of the β-Oxidation Pathway

• Four reactions repeatedly cleave two carbon
units from the carboxyl end of the acyl CoA
molecule
• This process is also called β-oxidation pathway
because the second carbon or beta carbon from
the carboxyl end of the chain is oxidized
– Removes two carbon units and converts acyl CoA to
acetyl CoA
– FADH2 and NADH are produced
Return to TOC

Section 25.4
Four Steps of the Beta-Oxidation Pathway

• Step 1: First dehydrogenation
– Hydrogen atoms are removed from the α and β
carbons, creating a double bond between these two
carbon atoms
– FAD is the oxidizing agent, and an FADH2 molecule is
the product
• Step 2: Hydration
– A molecule of water is added across the trans double
bond, producing a secondary alcohol at the β-carbon
position
Return to TOC

Section 25.4
Four Steps of the Beta-Oxidation Pathway

• Step 3: Second dehydrogenation
– β-hydroxyl group is oxidized to a keto functional
group with NAD+ serving as the oxidizing agent
• Step 4: Thiolysis
– Fatty acid chain is broken between the α and β
carbons by reaction with a coenzyme A molecule
– The result is an acetyl CoA molecule and a new acyl
CoA molecule that is shorter by two carbon atoms
than its predecessor
Return to TOC

Section 25.4
Figure 25.7 - Beta-Oxidation Pathway
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Section 25.4
Unsaturated Fatty Acids

• Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids requires two
additional steps compared to saturated fatty
acids
– Epimerase - Changes D configuration to an L
configuration
– Cis–trans isomerase - Produces a trans-(2,3) double
bond from a cis-(3,4) double bond
Return to TOC

Section 25.4
What is the first step in the oxidation of a fatty

acid?
a.It is activated by bonding to coenzyme A.

b.It is transported into the mitochondrial matrix.
c.It is oxidized to acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid
cycle.
d.It undergoes dehydrogenation.
Return to TOC

Section 25.4
What is the first step in the oxidation of a fatty

acid?
a.It is activated by bonding to coenzyme A.

b.It is transported into the mitochondrial matrix.
c.It is oxidized to acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid
cycle.
d.It undergoes dehydrogenation.
Return to TOC

Section 25.5
ATP Production From Fatty Acid Oxidation
Fatty Acid vs. Glucose Oxidation: A Comparison

• Fatty acid oxidation produces a net of 120 ATP
molecules by oxidation of C18 atom or stearic
acid
– 2 ATP molecules are needed for activation of fatty
acids, so net ATP production is 120 molecules
• 1 stearic acid molecule (C18 atom) produces 122
molecules of ATP
Return to TOC

Section 25.5
Fatty Acid vs. Glucose Oxidation: A Comparison

• Stoichiometric comparison:
– 1.00 g Stearic acid produces 0.423 mole ATP
– 1.00 g glucose produces 0.167 mole ATP
• Stearic acid produces 2.5 times more energy
than glucose
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Section 25.5
What is the net ATP production for a 16-carbon

fatty acid?
a.78
b.92
c.106
d.120
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Section 25.5
What is the net ATP production for a 16-carbon

fatty acid?
a.78
b.92
c.106
d.120
Return to TOC

Section 25.6
Ketone Bodies and Ketogenesis
• Acetyl CoA formed from β-oxidation pathway is

further processed by the citric acid cycle
– Adequate balance in carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism is required
• Lipid–carbohydrate metabolism can be disturbed
by the following conditions:
– Dietary intake is high in fat and low in carbohydrates
– Diabetic conditions where the body cannot use
glucose properly
– Prolonged fasting conditions
Return to TOC

Section 25.6
Ketone Bodies
• Under low supply of oxaloacetate, the acetyl
CoA will be in excess (increased concentration)
• As a consequence, the excess acetyl CoA is
converted to ketone bodies
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Section 25.6
Ketogenesis
• Involves the synthesis of ketone bodies from
acetyl CoA
• Primary site for this process is in the liver
mitochondria
• The three ketone bodies produced are:
– Acetoacetate
– β-hydroxybutyrate
– Acetone
Return to TOC

Section 25.6
Steps Involved in Ketogenesis

• Step 1: First condensation
– Two acetyl CoA molecules combine to produce
acetoacetyl CoA, a reversal of the last step of the β-
oxidation pathway
• Step 2: Second condensation
– Acetoacetyl CoA reacts with a third acetyl CoA and
water to produce 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA
(HMG-CoA) and CoA–SH
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Section 25.6
Steps Involved in Ketogenesis

• Step 3: Chain cleavage
– HMG-CoA is cleaved to acetyl CoA and acetoacetate
• Step 4: Hydrogenation
– Acetoacetate is reduced to β-hydroxybutyrate
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Section 25.6
Figure 25.8 - Summary of Ketogenesis
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Section 25.6
When the lipid-carbohydrate metabolism is upset

by certain body conditions, more acetyl CoA is
produced that can be used in the citric acid cycle.
This results in the production of _____ by a
process known as _____.
a.glucose; gluconeogenesis
b.glycogen; glycogenesis
c.ketone bodies; ketogenesis
d.carbon dioxide; decarboxylation
Return to TOC

Section 25.6
When the lipid-carbohydrate metabolism is upset

by certain body conditions, more acetyl CoA is
produced that can be used in the citric acid cycle.
This results in the production of _____ by a
process known as _____.
a.glucose; gluconeogenesis
b.glycogen; glycogenesis
c.ketone bodies; ketogenesis
d.carbon dioxide; decarboxylation
Return to TOC

Section 25.7
Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids: Lipogenesis
Lipogenesis vs. Fatty Acid Degradation

Lipogenesis Degradation of a fatty acids
Occurs in the cell cytosol Occurs in the mitochondrial
matrix
A multi-enzyme complex Enzymes are not physically
called fatty acid synthase associated, and the reaction
catalyzes reactions steps are independent
Intermediates are bonded The carrier for fatty acid
to acyl carrier protein (ACP) degradation is CoA
Dependent on the reducing Dependent on FAD and NAD+
agent NADPH
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Section 25.7
The Citrate–Malate Shuttle System

• Acetyl CoA is the starting material for
lipogenesis
• Acetyl CoA needed for lipogenesis is generated
in mitochondria and must first be transported to
the cytosol
• Citrate–malate transport system helps transport
acetyl CoA to the cytosol indirectly
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Section 25.7
Figure 25.10 - The Citrate–Malate System
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Section 25.7
ACP Complex Formation

• All intermediates in fatty acid synthesis are
linked to carrier proteins (ACP–SH)
• ACP–SH can be regarded as a “giant CoA
molecule”
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Section 25.7
Chain Elongation
• Four reactions constitute first step of chain
elongation process:
– Step 1: Condensation—where acetyl ACP and
malonyl ACP condense together to form acetoacetyl
ACP
– Step 2: Hydrogenation—where the keto group of the
acetoacetyl complex is reduced to alcohol by NADPH
– Step 3: Dehydration—where water is removed from
alcohol to form an alkene
– Step 4: Hydrogenation—where hydrogen is added to
alkene 3 to form saturated butyryl ACP from NADPH
Return to TOC

Section 25.7
Unsaturated Fatty Acid Biosynthesis

• To produce a double bond, molecular O2 is
needed
– In humans and animals, enzymes can only introduce
double bond between C4 and C5 and between C9
and C10
• Consequence - Essential unsaturated fatty acids
linoleic (C18 with C9 and C12 double bonds) and
linolenic (C18 with C9, C12, and C15 double
bonds) cannot be biosynthesized
– Should come from diet (Plants have enzymes to
synthesize them) Return to TOC

Section 25.7
Lipogenesis occurs in the cell _____, where all

intermediates are bound to _____, resulting in a
fatty acid biosynthetic pathway where the fatty acid
chain increases in length by _____ carbons per
pathway cycle.
a.mitochondria; CoA–SH; 4
b.mitochondria; CoA–SH; 2
c.cytosol; ACP–SH; 4
d.cytosol; ACP–SH; 2
Return to TOC

Section 25.7
Lipogenesis occurs in the cell _____, where all

intermediates are bound to _____, resulting in a
fatty acid biosynthetic pathway where the fatty acid
chain increases in length by _____ carbons per
pathway cycle.
a.mitochondria; CoA–SH; 4
b.mitochondria; CoA–SH; 2
c.cytosol; ACP–SH; 4
d.cytosol; ACP–SH; 2
Return to TOC

Section 25.8
Relationships Between Lipogenesis and Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates
• The last four intermediates of the citric acid

cycle bear the following relationship with each
other:
Saturated C diacid  unsaturated C diacid  hydroxyl C diacid  keto C diacid
4 4 4 4
• The intermediate C4 carbon chains of

lipogenesis bear the following relationship with
Ketoeach other:
C monoacid  hydroxy C monoacid  unsaturated C monoacid  saturated C monoacid
4 4 4 4
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Section 25.8
Important Contrasts Between Citric Acid Cycle and

Lipogenesis Intermediates
• The citric acid intermediates involve C 4 diacids,
and the lipogenesis intermediates involve C 4
monoacids
• The order in which the various acid derivative
types are encountered in lipogenesis is the
reverse of the order in which they are
encountered in the citric acid cycle
Return to TOC

Section 25.8
Identify the statement that states the relationship

between lipogenesis and citric acid intermediates?
a.The lipogenesis intermediates are four carbon monoacids, and

the citric acid intermediates are four carbon diacids.
b.The lipogenesis intermediates are four carbon diacids, and the
citric acid intermediates are four carbon monoacids.
c.The intermediates in lipogenesis and the citric acid cycle are
four carbon monoacids.
d.The intermediates in lipogenesis and the citric acid cycle are
four carbon diacids.
Return to TOC

Section 25.8
Identify the statement that states the relationship

between lipogenesis and citric acid intermediates?
a.The lipogenesis intermediates are four carbon monoacids, and

the citric acid intermediates are four carbon diacids.
b.The lipogenesis intermediates are four carbon diacids, and the
citric acid intermediates are four carbon monoacids.
c.The intermediates in lipogenesis and the citric acid cycle are
four carbon monoacids.
d.The intermediates in lipogenesis and the citric acid cycle are
four carbon diacids.
Return to TOC

Section 25.9
Fate of Fatty-Acid-Generated Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA After Fatty Acid Oxidation

• Further channeled in different routes:
– Further processed to obtain ATP
– Ketone body formation
– Storage in the form of TAGs
– Used as starting material for the production of lipids
and other fatty acids
• Example: Cholesterol biosynthesis occurs when the
body is in an acetyl-CoA-rich state
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Section 25.9
Cholesterol
• Necessary component of cell membrane
• Precursor for bile salts, sex hormones, and
adrenal hormone
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Section 25.9
Biosynthesis of cholesterol occurs in the _____.
a.muscles
b.liver
c.small intestine
d.pancreas
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Section 25.9
Biosynthesis of cholesterol occurs in the _____.
a.muscles
b.liver
c.small intestine
d.pancreas
Return to TOC

Section 25.10
Relationships Between Lipid and Carbohydrate Metabolism
An Overview
• Acetyl CoA is the primary link between lipid and
carbohydrate metabolism pathways
• Acetyl CoA:
– Starting material for the biosynthesis of fatty acids,
cholesterol, and ketone bodies
– Degradation product for glucose, glycerol, and fatty
acids
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Section 25.10
What is the product of lipid and carbohydrate

metabolism that enters the citric acid cycle?
a.Pyruvate
b.ACP-SH
c.Acetyl CoA
d.Lactic acid
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Section 25.10
What is the product of lipid and carbohydrate

metabolism that enters the citric acid cycle?
a.Pyruvate
b.ACP-SH
c.Acetyl CoA
d.Lactic acid
Return to TOC

Section 25.11
B Vitamins and Lipid Metabolism
• Structurally modified B vitamins function as coenzymes in lipid metabolism
• B vitamins that participate in various pathways of lipid metabolism include:
– Niacin (as NAD+, NADH, and NADPH)
– Riboflavin (as FAD)
– Pantothenic acid (as CoA, acetyl CoA, and ACP)
– Biotin
Return to TOC

Section 25.11
Figure 25.15 - B Vitamin Participation in Lipid

Metabolism Reactions
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Section 25.11
Which of the following B-vitamin-containing

coenzymes is needed in the reactions associated
with the conversion of fatty acids to acetyl CoA?
a.NADP
b.FAD
c.Biotin
d.None of the above
Return to TOC

Section 25.11
Which of the following B-vitamin-containing

coenzymes is needed in the reactions associated
with the conversion of fatty acids to acetyl CoA?
a.NADP
b.FAD
c.Biotin
d.None of the above
Return to TOC

Section 25.11
Concept Question 1
Shortly after arriving at your place of work in a clinical laboratory,
you have your blood drawn for serum analysis. You notice your
serum is milky white in appearance rather than the normal straw
color. Why is this?
a.You probably have a blood bacterial infection.

b.You had a high-fat breakfast, and the milky color is due to the presence of
high levels of chylomicron, a lipoprotein that transports triacylglycerols from the
small intestine to the bloodstream.
c.You had a high-fat breakfast, and the milky color is due to the presence of
high levels of low-density lipoprotein, a lipoprotein that transports
triacylglycerols from the small intestine to the bloodstream.
d.You had a high-fat breakfast, and the milky color is due to the presence of
high levels of high-density lipoprotein, a lipoprotein that transports
triacylglycerols from the small intestine to the bloodstream. Return to TOC

Section 25.11
Concept Question 1
Shortly after arriving at your place of work in a clinical laboratory,
you have your blood drawn for serum analysis. You notice your
serum is milky white in appearance rather than the normal straw
color. Why is this?
a.You probably have a blood bacterial infection.

b.You had a high-fat breakfast, and the milky color is due to the presence of
high levels of chylomicron, a lipoprotein that transports triacylglycerols from the
small intestine to the bloodstream.
c.You had a high-fat breakfast, and the milky color is due to the presence of
high levels of low-density lipoprotein, a lipoprotein that transports
triacylglycerols from the small intestine to the bloodstream.
d.You had a high-fat breakfast, and the milky color is due to the presence of
high levels of high-density lipoprotein, a lipoprotein that transports
triacylglycerols from the small intestine to the bloodstream. Return to TOC

Section 25.11
Concept Question 2
Besides cholesterol being an important cell

membrane component, what other function does
cholesterol serve?
a.It is a precursor for various classes of steroid hormones.

b.It can be converted to glucose during gluconeogenesis
when high levels of energy are required.
c.It is converted to steroid hormones, bile acids, and
Vitamin K.
d.It has no other function and any excess is deposited in
arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease.
Return to TOC

Section 25.11
Concept Question 2
Besides cholesterol being an important cell

membrane component, what other function does
cholesterol serve?
a.It is a precursor for various classes of steroid hormones.

b.It can be converted to glucose during gluconeogenesis
when high levels of energy are required.
c.It is converted to steroid hormones, bile acids, and
Vitamin K.
d.It has no other function and any excess is deposited in
arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease.
Return to TOC

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Section 25.

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 1

25.1 Digestion and absorption of lipids

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 2

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Lipid Digestion - An Introduction

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 3

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Lipid Digestion - The Stomach

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 4

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Lipid Digestion - The Intestinal cells

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 5

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Lipid Digestion - The Intestinal cells

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 6

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Lipid Digestion - The Bloodstream

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 7

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

During digestion, triacylglycerols are converted by

a.glycerol; free fatty acids

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 8

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

During digestion, triacylglycerols are converted by

a.glycerol; free fatty acids

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 9

Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization

The Adipose Tissue

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 10

Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization

Figure 25.4 - Structural Characteristics of an Adipose

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 11

Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 12

Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization

TAGs and Energy Reserves

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 13

Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization

Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in adipose tissue is

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 14

Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization

Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in adipose tissue is

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 15

Glycerol, After Entering the Bloodstream

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 16

What is the fate of the glycerol that is produced

a.It enters the bloodstream and is transported to joints

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 17

What is the fate of the glycerol that is produced

a.It enters the bloodstream and is transported to joints

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 18

Oxidation of Fatty Acids

Breakdown of Fatty Acids to Produce Energy

Copyright ©2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 19

Oxidation of Fatty Acids