A105 General and Physical

Chemistry

ESE Revision Slides

• Atom - made up of neutrons, protons and electrons Atomic number Lesson 1
• Protons - positively charged = Proton number
• Electrons - negatively charged = number of electrons in an atom
 Determine the atom identity
• Atomic mass = number of proton + number of
neutrons
• Valence electrons - electrons at the outermost shell -
take part in the chemical reactions. Atomic
• Octet rule – 8 electrons in the valence shell Symbol
• Duplet rule – 2 electrons - For small atoms (H, He,
Li,Be)
• Relative atomic mass - average of the atomic Name
masses of all the different isotopes in a sample.
Atomic
• Isotopes - atoms of the same element that have the
mass
same atomic number but a different number of neutrons.
Example
Relative atomic mass of oxygen
= (16  99.76 %) + (17  0.04 %) + (18 
Oxygen-16 Oxygen-17 Oxygen-18
0.20 %) = 16.00
99.76 % 0.04 % 0.20 %
Down the same group Lesson 1
• Same number of valence electrons
• Increasing number of electron shells
• Electrons are further and shielded
by more electron shells
• The outermost electrons are
attracted less strongly to nucleus
Atomic radius of elements increases
• atoms increase in size
• electrons further away from
the nucleus Across the same period • atoms have a
• Nucleus has less attraction • same number of electron shells greater nuclear
for electrons • increasing proton (atomic) numbers charge and a
Electronegativity decreases • increasing number of valence electrons smaller covalent
• the nuclear charge becomes more radius
positive as the number of protons in the • nucleus to attract
nucleus increases. electrons more
• the outermost electrons are attracted strongly
more strongly to the nucleus Electronegativity
Atomic radius of elements decreases increases
Types of emission Lesson 1

1) Alpha () radiation (a.k.a. alpha decay, alpha emission)

Ra  Rn + He

2) Beta () radiation (a.k.a. beta decay and beta emission)

Rb  Sr + e

3) Positron emission
 +e

4) Electron capture
W + e  Ta
 CO2 O3 NH3
• A lone pair is a pair of unbonded electrons.
• A bond pair is a covalent bond containing a
pair of electrons.
Central atom C O N

1 double bond, 1 3 single

Electron pairs
2 double single bond bonds
on the central
bonds + +
atom
1 lone pair 1 lone pair

2 electron 3 electron 4 electron

domains domains domains

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion(VSEPR) Theory

lone pair-lone lone pair-bond bond pair-bond
pair repulsion > pair repulsion > pair repulsion
• Two types of electron pairs
 Bonding pairs (single bonds, double bonds and
triple bonds)
 Non-bonding pairs (a.k.a. lone pairs)
Electron domain
A lone pair or a bond, regardless of whether the
bond is single, double, or triple. Lesson 2
Types of Intramolecular Bonding Dipole Moment
• Separation of charge which arise from
Non-polar covalent bond
A covalent bond between atoms with similar differences in electronegativity
electronegativity values. The electron are shared • The larger the difference in
equally. electronegativity between two atoms, the
e.g. H – C bond larger the dipole moment.
Polar covalent bond • A measure of the polarity of the molecule.
A covalent bond between atoms with different
electronegativity values. The electron are shared Example: CO2
unequally. • ∆EN of C=O bond = 3.44 - 2.55 = 0.89
e.g. H – O bond • Since 0.5 < ∆EN of C=O bond < 2.0,
Ionic bond C=O bond is a polar covalent bond.
The difference in electronegativity is so great that the
electrons are transferred completely. • CO2 is a linear molecule.
• The two C=O bond dipoles are equal
Difference in
in magnitude and oriented at 180°.
Intramolecular Bonding electronegativity (EN)
between 2 atoms in a bond • They cancel one another and there is
no net dipole moment.
Non-polar covalent bonds < 0.5 units
• Hence, CO2 is a non-polar molecule.
Polar covalent bonds 0.5 – 2.0
Ionic bonds > 2.0 units Lesson 2
Types of Intermolecular Bonding
Ion-dipole Hydrogen bonding Permanent Temporary dipole
interactions dipole interactions
interactions

Interaction between polar Interaction Interaction between

between ionic molecules where the between polar non-polar molecules
compounds and hydrogen atom is molecules
polar molecules: covalently bonded to
Ion-Dipole a fluorine, oxygen or
Interaction nitrogen atom.
Interaction Ions and polar Polar molecules Polar Non-polar molecules
between: molecules (occur when H-O/N/F molecules
bond is present)

Lesson 2
 1 mole of atom = 6.02 × 1023 atoms Determine limiting and excess reactants
1 mole of molecule = 6.02 × 1023 molecules
Limiting reactant Excess reactant
• The relative molecular mass of a molecule = The substance which is The substance present in
total relative atomic masses of all the atoms totally consumed when quantities greater than
that make up that molecule. the chemical reaction is necessary to react with the
complete quantity of the limiting reactant
No. of mole (mol) = mass (g)  molar mass (g/mol)
Example:
Balance chemical equation
Number of atoms of each = Number of atoms of each
CO + 2H2  CH3OH
element in the reactants element in the products Mass 4 moles of CO 6 moles of H2
• The molar ratio of CO : H2 is 1:2
Example: • 1 mole of carbon monoxide will react with
No. of Molar
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O 2 moles of hydrogen
mole mass
• 4 moles of carbon monoxide will react
Left side: Right side: with 8 moles of hydrogen
1 carbon atom 1 carbon atom • 6 moles of hydrogen will react with 3
4 hydrogen atoms 4 hydrogen atoms
moles of carbon monoxide
4 oxygen atoms 4 oxygen atoms
• But we have 4 moles of CO to begin with
1 molecule of methane 1 molecule of carbon  1 mole of CO left after the reaction
+ 2 molecules of oxygen dioxide + 2 molecules of • Hydrogen is limiting reactant
water Lesson 3
 Dilution V1 = 10.0 mL Transfer the 25.0 mL
of Substance A into a Va = 25.0 mL
Transfer the 10.0 mL
500-mL volumetric
of Substance A into a
flask
100-mL volumetric
flask
V2 = 100.0 mL
Top up with distilled
water to the 100 mL
mark

Stock solution Top up with distilled

0.200 M of water to the 500 mL
Substance A mark
Vb = 500mL
M1 = 0.200 M Ma = 0.020 M Mb = ? M
Total dilution factor = 10  20 = 200
M1V1 = M2V2 MaVa = MbVb
0.200 M  10.0 mL = M2  100.0 mL 0.020 M  25.0 mL = Mb  500.0 mL
M2 = 0.200 M  10.0 mL ÷ 100.0 mL Mb = 0.020 M  25.0 mL ÷ 500.0 mL
M2 = 0.020 M Mb = 0.001 M

Dilution factor Dilution factor

= M1 ÷ M2 = Ma ÷ Mb
= 0.200 M ÷ 0.020 M
= 10
= 0.020 M ÷ 0.001 M Lesson 4&5
= 20
pH
pH = − log10[H+] Example:
Determine the pH value of 0.05M of HCl. Determine the concentration of NaOH
[H+] = 10−pH pH = − log10[H+] = − log10 0.05 = 1.30 solution with a pH value of 13.
NaOH  Na+ + OH−
pOH = − log10[OH−] Determine the pH value of 0.02M of H2SO4.
pH + pOH = 14
H2SO4  2H+ + SO42−
pH + pOH = 14 pOH = 14-13=1
[H+] = 2 x 0.02 = 0.04 [OH−] = 10−1 = 0.1 M
pH = − log10[H+] = − log10 0.04 = 1.40

Acid-base Titration
Example 1: Example 2:

Example 1: Example 2:
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O 2 NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + 2 H2O
= =

=
=

Lesson 4&5
For a system at equilibrium Example
Lesson 6

1. Concentration of reactants or products:

Changes introduced Equilibrium counteracts Effect on Effect on the
to reaction at the change by shifting Equilibrium amount of NH3
Equilibrium constant, equilibrium state the equilibrium … constant produced

Le Chatelier’s Principle Adding H2 To the right Same Increase

Whenever an equilibrium is disturbed by a Adding N2 To the right Same Increase
change in the conditions, the reversible
Removing NH3 To the right Same Increase
reaction counteracts the change by shifting the
equilibrium to make the change less 2. Temperature:
significant. Changes introduced Equilibrium counteracts Effect on Effect on the amount
to reaction at the change by shifting Equilibrium of NH3 produced
equilibrium state the equilibrium … constant

Increasing
To the left Decrease Decrease
temperature

3. Pressure & Volume:

Changes introduced Equilibrium counteracts Effect on Effect on the amount
to reaction at the change by shifting Equilibrium of NH3 produced
equilibrium state the equilibrium … constant

Increasing
To the right Same Increase
pressure
According to the Brønsted-Lowry Acid-base Theory: Buffering capacity is the ability (a quantitative measure) of a
An acid is the species (molecule or ions) that donates H+ to buffer solution to resist pH change.
another species in a proton transfer reaction. Ex: Buffer Composition of buffer
Thus, an acid is a proton donor. A 0.2 M CH3COOH and 0.2 M CH3COONa
B 2.0 M CH3COOH and 2.0 M CH3COONa
A base is the species (molecule or ions) that accepts H+ from C 3.0 M HCl and 3.0 M NaCl
another species in a proton transfer reaction.
• Solutions A and B are buffers because they are made from
Thus, a base is a proton acceptor. CH3COOH, which is a weak acid and CH3COONa, which is a
salt of the weak acid.
Acidic Buffer • The buffering capacity depends on the molarity, Solution A
Example: has higher buffering capacity, as the molarities of both
Ethanoic acid: CH3COOH (l)   H+ (aq) + CH3COO-(aq) components are the higher.
Sodium ethanoate: CH3COONa(s)  Na+(aq) + CH3COO (aq) • Solutions C is NOT a buffer solution because HCl is a strong
acid, and buffers can only be produced from weak acids and
In this buffer solution, their salts.
• The species CH3COO- (conjugate base) reacts with small
Alkaline Buffer Lesson 7
amounts of acid added.
Example:
• The species CH3COOH (acid) reacts with small amounts of
Ammonia solution: NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
base.
Ammonium chloride: NH4Cl (s)  NH4+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
• Acid dissociation constant, K a =
In this buffer solution,
[ conjugate base ] • the species NH3 (base) reacts with small amounts of acid
pH = p K a + log 10
•
[ acid ] added.
The larger the Ka, the stronger the acid, as there will be a
• The species NH4+ (conjugate acid) reacts with small
larger extent of dissociation and thus, more ions in [ conju
solution. pOH
amounts of base = p K b + log 10
added.
 Enthalpy (H) Exothermic Endothermic
•Condensation
The heat content of a chemical system. •Melting
•Neutralization •Photosynthesis
Enthalpy change (∆H) •Combustion
The amount of heat released or absorbed by a •Thermal
•Respiration
decomposition
chemical system when a chemical reaction occurs at •Evaporation
constant pressure.
Standard Enthalpy Change (ΔH)
Enthapy change in standard state, at the same
specified temperature.(e.g. 298K, 1 bar)
Standard Enthalpy of Transition
3 ways to determine enthalpy change of a reaction Standard enthalpy change that
1. From Standard enthalpy of formation of reactants and products: accompanies a change in physical
state.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  2H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Compound ΔfH (kJ/mol)
Methane, CH4 (g) -74.8 = {[2  (H2O)] + (CO2)} – {(CH4) +(O2) ]}
Water, H2O (l) -286.0 = {[2  (-286.0)] + (-393.5)} – {(-74.8) +[2  0]}
Carbon dioxide, CO2 (g) -393.5 = -890.7 kJ
Oxygen, O2 *0
Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔfH- standard enthalpy change when one mole of compound is formed from its
elements in their reference states.
- ∆ H° for an element in its standard form is zero. e.g. H , N , O , F , Cl , Br and I . Lesson 8
2. From the Standard enthalpy change of the reactions steps from the initial to the final state
° ° °
rxn H °=∆ H 1 +∆ H 2+∆ H 3 …
Hess’s Law
the heat evolved or absorbed in a chemical process is the
same whether the process takes place in one or multiple
steps.
3. From the Standard bond dissociation enthalpy, ∆H° (A—B)
∆ rxn H = sum of ∆H Bond breaking – sum of ∆H bond forming
Bond breaking  Energy absorbed  -ve
Bond formation  Energy released  +ve
H H H H Type of Mean bond enthalpies,
H H
Bond ΔBH (kJ/mol)
H C C N C C +
N C−H 412
H H H H H H H
C−C 348
∆ rxn H = sum of ∆H Bond breaking – sum of ∆H bond forming C=C 612
= [5(C-H) + 1(C-C) + 2(N-H) + (C-N)] - [4(C-H) + 1(C=C) + 3(N-H)] N−H 388
= [5(412) + (348) + 2(388) + 305] – [4(412) + 1(612) + 3(388)] C-N 305
= 3489 – 3424 = 65 kJ
Entropy - measure of possible arrangements or configurations of a system
∆rxnS = S (product) - S (reactant)
 ΔG is negative for spontaneous process. ΔG = ∆Hsystem - T∆Ssystem Lesson 8 & 9
 Collision Theory Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Curve
Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction
Surface Area
• Smaller particle size  larger total surface area for collisions to
Ea occur  increase in the frequency of collisions increase in the
Activation number of successful collisions  reaction rate increases
Energy
Concentration of Reactants
• Increase in concentration  Increase in number of molecules per
unit volume  Increase in number of molecules with energy > Ea 
Increase in frequency of collisions with molecules with energy > Ea 
Rate of reaction will increase
Pressure  increase in pressure  Increase in concentration
• Ea - minimum
Temperature
amount of kinetic • Increase in proportion of molecules with higher energy  More
energy that particles
molecules with energy > Ea  Rate of reaction increases
must possess in
order to engage in Catalyst
successful collisions. • Catalyst can provide an alternative route which requires a lower
activation energy  increases the number of collision which result in
successful reaction  Rate of reaction increases Lesson 10
Order of Integrated Rate Half-Life (t½) Remarks
Reaction Reaction

0 [reactant] x 2  C = -kt + Co t1/2 = Co/(2k) Half life is directly proportional to initial

no effect on rate concentration.
1 [reactant] x 2  lnC = -kt + lnCo t1/2 = ln2 / k Half-life is independent of initial
rate x 2 concentration.
2 [reactant] x 2  1/C = kt + 1/Co t1/2 = 1 / kCo Half life is inversely proportional to initial
rate x 4 concentration

Activation Energy (Ea) - minimum amount of energy required to break bonds and initiate a
reaction. k = Ae(-Ea/RT)
Reaction temperature
• An increase in temperature
means more available kinetic
energy in surrounding, leading
to increase in collision.
• Rate constant, k, also
increases, hence the reaction
rate increases.
Activation energy
Presence of catalyst
• At constant temperature,
• Activation energy is
activation energy, Ea, is
decreased, lower energy
inversely proportional to rate
barrier for molecules to react
constant, k.
• Rate constant, k, increases,
• An increase in Ea will result in
hence reaction rate
a decrease in k, hence
increases.
reaction rate decreases.
Lesson 10
 Reaction Mechanism CH3CHO (g)  CH4 (g) + CO (g)
• A mechanism can be described as a series of
“elementary steps”. Rate = k [CH3CHO]n
• An overall balanced chemical equation merely  log(rate) = log(k [CH3CHO]n)
represents the sum of several elementary steps at the  log(rate) = log k + log[CH CHO]n
3
molecular level. SAME! - Step 1 is rate log(rate) = log k + n log[CH3CHO]
Example: determining step! \ log(rate)  n log[CH CHO] 3
2 H 2O2 (aq ) 

k
2 H 2O(l )  O2 ( g ) log(rate) is directly proportional to (n log[CH 3CHO]).
Experimentally, the observed rate law is: rate = k[H2O2][I-]
9
The reaction is believed to occur via two elementary steps: 8
 IO 1:
H 2O2Step k
2
H 2O  O2  I  7
 6
2  I 2:
H 2OStep 
k1
H 2O  IO  Plot the graph

log (rate)
5
• IO- - intermediate. It is formed from the reactants (or 4 log(rate) VS
preceding intermediates) and reacts further to give the 3 log[CH3CHO]
products of a chemical reaction. 2
1
• I- is a catalyst because I- is present at the beginning and
0
end of reaction. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 log
3 [CH CHO]
3.5 34 4.5

Lesson 11
Element Oxidation number of an uncombined element is always zero.
Lesson 12
Monatomic • The oxidation number of an atom in a monatomic ion equals to the charge of ion.
ions
Oxygen • The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 in most compounds, e.g. MgO and H 2O.
• BUT in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxide ion (O22-), the oxidation number of oxygen is -1.
Hydrogen The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except when it is bonded to metals in binary compounds i.e. metal
hydrides.
Halogens The oxidation number of fluorine is -1 in all of its compounds.
Other halogens (Cl, Br, I) has an oxidation of -1 in binary compounds.
Higher oxidation state of Cl, Br, I is obtained when these halogens are in combination with F and O.
Neutral The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a neutral molecule is zero.
molecule
Ions The sum of oxidation numbers of all the elements in a polyatomic ion must be equal to the net charge of the ion.

Compounds Some elements, when forming compounds, will almost always have the same oxidation states.

Oxidation Reduction
Half equation shows the loss of electrons The process of gaining electrons.

Oxidation state increases. Oxidation state decreases.

The species that lose electrons is called the reducing The species that gains electrons is called the oxidizing agent - by
agent - by giving electrons, it reduces the other species. accepting electrons, it oxidizes other species.
Standard Electrode Potentials (EMF) E°cell = E°oxidation + E°reduction Lesson 13
The standard potential of any galvanic cell is the sum of the standard half-cell potentials for oxidation at the anode and reduction at the
cathode.
Galvanic cell Electrolytic cell
Energy release by spontaneous redox reaction is converted to
electrical energy

E°cell of voltaic cell is always positive

 Spontaneous redox reaction  Converts chemical
energy into electrical energy
 No battery required to drive reaction
 Ex: Between Mg Zn metals.
Met Reduction half-
E (V)
al equation
E° is more negative 
Mg Mg2+(aq) + 2e−  Mg(s) −2.37 Oxidation
Mg(s)  Mg2+(aq) + 2e
E° is more positive 
Zn Zn2+(aq) + 2e−  Zn(s) −0.76 Reduction
Zn2+(aq) + 2e−  Zn(s)

Full REDOX equation:

Zn2+(aq) + Mg(s)  Zn(s) + Mg2+(aq)

1. Determine which substance undergoes oxidation and reduction respectively

2. Reverse the half-equation for the substance that undergoes oxidation and change the sign of E
3. Balance the number of electrons given in and out
4. Sum-up the standard potentials together to obtain the overall standard cell potential, Ecell = Eoxidation + Ereduction
5. Construct the balanced REDOX equation

Lesson 13
The amount of charge (Q) transferred is calculated from Q=It
the current (I) used and the time (t) taken in seconds.

The number of moles of electrons (ne) produced ne = Q ÷ F = (I  t) ÷ F

is calculated based on the charge transferred. 1 F = 96500 C ÷ mole of electrons
One faraday (F) represents
one mole of electrons. It is equal to 96,500
coulombs.

The number of moles of substance (n) Example:

produced is calculated using the number Ag+ (aq) + 1e-  Ag(s)
of moles of electrons and stoichiometry 1 mol of electron produce 1 mole of Ag
from balanced half-reactions. Au3+ (aq) + 3e-  Au(s)
3 moles of electrons produce 1 mole of Au.

The mass of a substance produced during electrolysis Mass

is calculated from the number of moles and the molar = number of moles  molar
mass of the substance. mass Lesson 13
A105 ESE Instructions to student:
1) For this assessment, you are allowed to:
 Have a blank piece of paper for rough working purpose. (Note that the sheet of rough working paper will not
be accepted for submission at the end of the assessment.)

2) For this assessment, you are NOT allowed to:

 Refer to any resources, including materials stored in your notebook computers.
 Share any material, such as calculators, with another student.
 Communicate with any person other than the invigilator.
 Use any communication devices such as handphone or smart watches while at the assessment venue.