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Chapter 2 Introduction To Heat Transfer
Chapter 2 Introduction To Heat Transfer
Chapter 2 Introduction To Heat Transfer
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2.1.2 Fourier’s law of conduction
2.1.2.1 One-dimensional
Consider the conduction of heat through a slab of thickness L, as shown in
Fig. 2.1-2. The lower and upper surfaces are kept at a constant temperature T 1 and
T2, respectively. A steady-state temperature profile T(y) is established in the slab.
Consider two surface in slab separated with a infinitesimal distance dy, as shown
in Fig. 2.1-2. due to temperature gradient generated in the slab, heat flow from the
surface y to the surface y+dy. A heat flux is defined as the amount of heat transferred
per unit area per unit time, and can be expressed as
dT
q y k
dy [2.1-1]
where k is the thermal conductivity of the medium. This equation is Fourier’s law
of conduction for one-dimensional heat conduction in the y-direction. The mks units of
the heat flux and the thermal conductivity are W/m2 and Wm-1K-1, respectively. 2
The thermal conductivities of some common
materials are given in Fig. 2.1-3 and Table 2.1-1.
2.1.2.2 Three-dimensional
For heat transfer in a three-dimensional medium, the Fourier’s law can be
expressed for each of the three coordinate directions
dT dT dT
q x k [2.1-2] q y k [2.1-3] q z k [2.1-4]
dx dy dz
And can be expressed in a three-dimensional form of Fourier’s law of conduction.
q kT
2.1.2.3 The Thermal Diffusivity
k
The thermal diffusivity, α , is defined as
Cv
Where and Cv are the density and specific heat of the material, respectively. 3
2.1.3 Thermal boundary layer
Consider a fluid of uniform temperature T∞ approaching a flat plate of constant
temperature Ts in the direction parallel to the plate. At the solid/liquid interface the
fluid temperature is Ts since the local fluid particles achieve thermal equilibrium at
the interface. The fluid temperature T in the region near the plate is affected by the
plate, varying from Ts at the surface to T∞ in the main stream. This region is called
the thermal boundary layer.
4
Definition of thermal thickness: The thickness of thermal boundary layer δT
is taken as the distance from the plate surface at which the dimensionless
temperature (T-TS)/(T∞-TS) reaches 0.99. In practice it is usually specified
that T=T∞ and T / y 0 at y=δT.
where
v D Inertial force C Viscous diffusivity
Re D Pr v [2.1-8]
Viscous force k thermal diffusivity
Cv
(Reynolds number) (Prandtl number) 5
Define average temperature Tav
A
C TvdA
v
[2.1-10]
C vdA
A v
qy h (TS T ) [2.1-15]
y 0
The equation is called Newton’s law of cooling. For fluid flow through a tube of
an inner radius R and wall temperature TS, a similar equation can be used:
qr r R k T r r R
h
TS Tav TS Tav [2.1-16]
Where Tav is the average fluid temperature over the cross-sectional area R2.
Consider the thermally fully developed region shown in Fig. 2.1-5. In the case of a
constant heat flux, the heat transfer coefficient h is constant in the thermally fully
developed region. From Eq. [2.1-16] we see that (TS-Tav) is also constant.
From this and Eq.[2.1-12], we have
Ts T Tav
(constant qr r R )
[2.1-17]
z z z
Since TS and Tav are independent of r, T / z is also independent of r, Let us
consider the case of a constant wall temperature TS. Eq. [2.1-12] can be expanded
and solved for T / z to give 7
T T T Tav [2.1-18]
( S ) (constant TS)
z TS Tav z
Since T is dependent on r, T / z is also dependent on r.
2.2.1 Derivation
Consider a control volume Ω bounded by control surface A through which a
moving fluid is flowing. As defined in previous chapter, the control surface is
composed by Ain , Aout, and Awall. Consider an infinitesimal area dA in vector form
is ndA, the inward and outward heat transfer rate through area dA is -q . ndA
and q . ndA, respectively.
The energy conservation law (first law of thermodynamics) written for an open
system under unsteady-state condition is
rate of energy rate of energy in rate of energy out
(1) (2) (3)
accumulation by mass inflow by mass outflow
rate of other heat rate of work rate of heat [2.2-3]
transfer to system (4) done by system (5) generation (6)
from surroundings on surroundings in system
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Term 1: Rate of energy accumulation
The thermal, kinetic, and potential energy per unit mass of the fluid are
CvT, v2/2, and ψ, respectively, where Cv, T, v are the specific heat, temperature,
and velocity of the fluid. The total energy per unit mass of the fluid
1 2
e C T v
t v
[2.2-4]
2
The total energy in the differential volume element dΩis dEt=ρetdΩ. dm =ρdΩ
This can be integrated over Ω to obtain the total energy in the control volume E t
et v ndA
A
Since v=0 at the wall, above term can be expressed as
W p pv ndA
A
Wv ( v) ndA
A 10
Term 6: Heat generation rate
The heat generation rate per unit volume, such as that due to Joule heating,
phase transformation, or chemical reaction. The rate of heat generation in the
differential volume element dΩ is dS=s dΩ. The heat generation in the control
volume is S,
S sd
Substituting the integral form of terms(1) through (6) into Eq.[2.2.3]
t
et d = et v ndA q ndA
A A
[2.2-5]
pv ndA ( v) ndA W s
A A
In most problem, including those in materials processing, the kinetic and
potential energies are neglegible as compared to the thermal energy. Furthermore,
the pressure, viscous and shaft work are usually negligible or even absent. As such,
Eq.[2.2-5] reduces to
t
CvTd CvTv ndA q ndA sd
A A
[2.2-6]
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According to [2.2-3], Eq. [2.2-6] can be written as
ET
( CvTvdA) in ( CvTvdA) out Q S [2.2-7]
t A A
Where ET is the thermal energy in the control volume, substituting Eq. [2.1-11]
(definition of Tav) into this equation and assuming constant Cv, we obtain
ET
( CvTav vav A) in ( CvTav vav A) out Q S
t
(mCvTav ) in (mCvTav ) out Q S [2.2-8]
12
p
0 (et ) v ndA
A
1 p 1 p [2.2-9]
(C v T v 2 )vA (C v T v 2 )vA
2 1 2 2
1 2 p1 1 2 p2
v1 1 v 2 2
2 2
If the z direction is taken vertically upward, =gz, where g is the gravitational
acceleration. As such, Eq/.[2.2-10], on multiplying by , becomes
1 1
v12 gz1 p1 v 2 2 gz2 p2
2 2
or simply
1 2
v gz p constant
2
Which is the Bernoulli equation.
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Example 2.2.2 Conduction through cylindrical composite wall
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Example 2.2.3 Heat transfer in fluid flow through a pipe
ln(T Tav ) z C 2 RU
mCv - L
TL T0 (T T0 ) (1-e mCv
)
B.C.1: Tav Tz at z=0 C=ln(T T0 )
(T Tav ) 2 RU
ln z
(T T0 ) mCv 15
Example 2.2.4 Counterflow heat exchanger
and
1 Tc2 Tc1
[2.2-48]
mc Cv Qe
16
From view of C.V.
Because we want to express Qe in terms of U,
therefore, considering the C.V. in the inner pipe.
Th 2 Tc 2 2 RU L
Th1 Tc1
d ln(Th Tc )
Qe
(Th 2 Th1 Tc 2 Tc1 ) dz
0
(2.2-54)
or
(T T ) (T T )
Qe (2 RL)U h 2 c 2 h1 c1
(2.2 55)
(T T )
ln h 2 c 2
(Th1 Tc1 )
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Example 2.2.5 Heat transfer in laminar flow over a flat plate
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we have
T T T d T
0
CvT vz dy z
0
CvT vz dy z z k
y
z ( CvT vz dy )z 0
dz 0
y 0
dividing by Cv
d T T d T
[ Tvz dy ]dz z ( T vz dy )dz 0
dz 0 y y 0
dz 0
T d T
vz (T T )dy
y y 0
dz 0
5. Assume
T Ts 3 y 1 y 3
= ( ) - ( ) [2.2-61]
T Ts 2 T 2 T
and
vz 3 y 1 y
= ( ) - ( )3 [2.2-64]
v 2 2
6. Assume
Please see the derivation in other pages
T
1
C
T , we have Pr 3 , [2.2-65] where Pr= v 20
k
7. By the definition of heat transfer coefficient
T
k
y y 0
h [2.2-67], substituting Eq[2.2-61] into [2.2-67]
Ts T
3 k
we have h = [2.2 68]
2 T
z 4.64
From Eq.[1.4-62] we have = [2.2 69]
Re z
We have
hz 3 z 3 z 3 13 1 1 1 1
=Nu z Pr Re z 2 0.323Pr 3 Re z 2
k 2 T 2 T 2 4.64
[2.2-65] [2.2-69] 21