STEPPER MOTORS

• CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS
• TORQUE EQUATIONS
• CHARACTERISTICS
• MICROPROCESSOR CONTROL OF STEPPER MOTORS
• OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
• APPLICATIONS

1
• A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which
converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements.
• The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete
step increments when electrical command pulses are
applied to it in the proper sequence.
• Practically the stepper motors are available in the power
range from 1W to 2.5kW and torque range of 1μN-m to 40
μN-m.
• Typical types of stepper motors can rotate 1.8°, 2°, 2.5°, 5°,
7.5°, and 15° per input electrical pulse.
• The stepper motor works on the principle of magnetic
interaction between the stator and rotor.

2
• When a particular phase
winding on stator pole is
excited.
• The rotor pole nearer to
that stator pole will
move in a way that both
stator and rotor poles
are aligned with each
other.
• The teeth on stator and
rotor experiences equal
and opposite forces,
which attempt to pull
them together and
minimize the air gap
between them.

3
Terminology used in stepper motors
Step angle: (θs or β)
• It is the angular displacement of rotor of a stepper motor for
every pulse of excitation given to the stator winding of the
motor.
• It is determined by the number of teeth on the rotor and
stator, as well as the number of steps in the energization
sequence.
It is given by

where,
m= number of phases
Nr= Number of rotor poles

4
For Hybrid stepper motors

Resolution:

• It is the number of steps per revolution.

• It is denoted as S or Z.

It is given by,

5
Stepping Rate: The number of steps taken by the motor per
second is known as stepping rate or stepping frequency.
Hold Position: It corresponds to the equilibrium position when
the stepper motor is excited or energized.
Detent Position: It corresponds to equilibrium position of the
motor when it is not excited.
Stepping Error: Actual step angle is slightly different from the
theoretical step angle.
• This is mainly due to tolerances in the manufacture of stepper
motor and the properties of the magnetic and other materials
used.
• The error in the step angle is expressed as a percentage of the
theoretical step angle.

Percentage error is restricted to ± 5%. In some cases it is restricted to ±2%.

6
• A stepper motor has mainly two constructional aspects, one
is stator and the other is rotor.
• Unlike conventional motors, in stepper motors both the stator
and the rotor have salient structure i.e., projected poles and
windings are placed in concentric fashion, only on the stator,
no windings are used in rotor.
• The stator core is made of material having high permeability.
• As stated above the rotor doesn’t carry any winding and only
the stator has windings as shown in figure above.
• In stepper motors, namely three types of rotor
construction/materials are used based on which the stepper
motors are classified into three types,
 Permanent magnet stepper motor
 Variable Reluctance stepper motor
 Hybrid stepper motor

7
 Points to remember
• In order to achieve stepped motion of the shaft, it is not
possible by having a smooth cylindrical structure of stator
and rotor
• Hence the stepper motors use projected poles on both the
stator & rotor, calling them as double salient machine.
• Only the stator carries concentric windings, placed on each
pole of stator.
• For motor having even number of stator poles, the no. of
phases will be half of no. of poles
• For odd no. of stator poles, the number phases is equal to
the no. of pole.
• The stepper motor is single excited machine and hence
minimizing the losses in the machine.

8
Permanent Magnet Stepper motor (PM Stepper motor)
Construction:
• The PM stepper motor has stator and rotor.
• The stator is made of stacked steel laminations with poles
projected.
• The stator carries the concentric windings, the windings on
diametrically opposite poles are connected to form phase
windings.
• The rotor is made of hard ferrite permanent magnet material
with poles projected outwards in few applications and in many
applications the rotor is of cylindrical structure and has radially
magnetized permanent magnets.
• The number of poles on the stator and rotor determines the step
angle of the motor.
• The minimum stepping angle can be achieved either by
increasing the number of stator poles or the number of rotor

9
• The optimum means of achieving minimum stepping angle in
stepper motors can be done by increasing the number of
rotor poles.
• But, in case of PM stepper motor, the number of rotor pole
cannot be increased for a given size of rotor because of the
limitation on smallest size achievable by the permanent
magnet rotor pole.
• Hence, in the case of PM stepper motor, minimum stepping
angle cannot be achieved relatively.
• In PM stepper motor as the rotor is having magnetic polarity,
for a given value of phase current the active component of
work done will be more since there is no need to magnetize
the rotor as in the case of variable reluctance stepper motor.

10
Fig.1: Permanent Magnet rotor (a) Projected permanent magnet poles
(b) Smooth cylindrical permanent magnet poles radially magnetized

11
Working & operation:
• A PM stepper motor works on the principle of magnetic
interaction between an electromagnet and a permanent
magnet which is movable.
• Here the stator carries the electromagnet and the rotor is
made of permanent magnet material.
• Consider a permanent magnet
stepper motor having 4-stator
poles and 2-rotor poles as
shown in Fig. 2 below.
• As there are 4-stator poles,
two phase windings namely;
Phase A and Phase B are
placed on them with windings
on diametrically opposite poles
connected in series as shown.

12
• When we give supply to the stator, the winding of stator is
energized and hence produces magnetic field.
• As described above, the rotor is made up of permanent
magnet, that’s why it tends to follow the revolving field.
• The rotor will move into alignment with the stator poles
whose phase winding is excited.
• There are namely three modes of operating a stepper motor
based on the way of giving pulses to the phase windings,
 1-Phase ON mode
 2-Phase ON mode
 Alternate 1-Phase & 2-Phase ON mode

13
 1-Phase ON mode (Wave mode)
• In this mode of operating stepper
motors only single phase will be
in ON state keeping the
remaining in OFF state.
• When phase A is excited with
positive polarity, such that the
stator pole corresponding to
terminal A acts as South pole
and that the other pole of phase
A acts as North pole, the rotor
will move and come into
alignment with poles
corresponding to phase A as
shown in Fig. 2.
Considering this position as initial position, θs = 0°, to make the rotor take
the next step and rotate in clock wise direction, the next phase need to be

14
excited making the previous phase OFF.
 1-Phase ON mode (Wave mode)
When phase B is excited with
positive polarity such that the
stator pole corresponding to
terminal B acts as North pole
and the other pole of phase B
acts as South pole the rotor will
experience torque which makes
it rotate in clock-wise direction
and align to the poles
corresponding to phase B
making θs = 90° which is shown
in Fig. 3.

15
 1-Phase ON mode (Wave mode)

• For the next step in clock-

wise direction to make θs =
180° w.r.t the θs=0° position,
phase B is made OFF and
phase A is excited with
reverse polarity compared to
the initial excitation.
• This circulates current in
reverse direction in phase A,
and hence creating a North
Pole at terminal A and South
Pole at the other pole of
phase A as shown in Fig. 4.

16
 1-Phase ON mode (Wave mode)

• Similarly, the position θs =

270° can be achieved by
making the phase A OFF and
making the phase B excited
with reverse polarity to
circulate current in reverse
direction w.r.t position θs=90°.
• This creates a south pole at
terminal B and North pole at
other pole of phase B as
shown in Fig. 5.

17
Pulse input diagram & truth table

18
• It can be observed that the direction of rotation of stepper
motor can be reversed by reversing the current polarity
through the phase winding as shown below.

• In order to achieve further small step angle without changing

the mechanical aspects of the motor, the other modes of
operation can be used which even adds few advantages w.r.t
to the response of the rotor position for every excitation
which is explained in next section.

19
 2- Phase ON mode (Full step mode)
In this mode, always two phases will excited for every step, but
with change of current polarity through the winding, based on
the direction of rotation required.

When positive current is

flowing through both
phase A and B winding,
then the rotor will align
as shown in fig. at angle
θ = 45º

20
2- Phase ON mode (Full step mode)

When negative current

is flowing through phase
A and positive current
through phase B
winding, then the rotor
will align as shown in
fig. at angle θ = 135º

21
2- Phase ON mode (Full step mode)

When negative current

is flowing through both
phase A and B winding,
then the rotor will align
as shown in fig. at
angle θ = 225º

22
2- Phase ON mode (Full step mode)

When positive current is

flowing through phase A
and negative current
through phase B winding,
then the rotor will align as
shown in fig. at angle θ
= 315º

23
Pulse input diagram & truth table

24
• In this mode of excitation the transient response of
rotor position can be improved
• A new set of rotor position different than that of the
previous mode can be achieved
• But the step angle remains the same in both these
modes.

25
 Alternate 1-Phase & 2-Phase ON mode
(Half step mode)
• In this mode of operation, the rotor of the stepper motor will
move by an angle equal to half of the full step angle.
• It is basically the combination of both 1-phase and 2-phase
ON mode.

• Initially, when only phase A is

excited, a south pole will be
created on the stator pole
corresponding to terminal A
and north pole on pole
corresponding to A’.
• Hence the rotor will align to
the position θs = 0° as shown
in fig. below

26
 (Half step mode)

• In this step when both

phase A and B excited
with positive polarity as
shown in fig.
• The resultant stator
MMF will be exactly in
between the two stator
poles as shown and the
rotor will align, making
an angle of θs = 45°.

27
 (Half step mode)

When positive current is

flowing through the
phase B winding, then
the rotor will align as
shown in fig. at angle
θ = 90º

28
 (Half step mode)

When negative current is

flowing through phase A
and positive current
through phase B winding,
then the rotor will align as
shown in fig. at angle
θ = 135º

29
 (Half step mode)

When negative current is

flowing through the phase
A winding, then the rotor
will align as shown in fig.
at angle θ = 180º

30
 (Half step mode)

When negative current

is flowing through both
phase A and B winding,
then the rotor will align
as shown in fig. at angle
θ = 225º

31
 (Half step mode)

When negative current

is flowing through the
phase B winding, then
the rotor will align as
shown in fig. at angle θ
= 270º

32
 (Half step mode)
When positive current is
flowing through phase A
and negative current
through phase B
winding, then the rotor
will align as shown in
fig. at angle θ = 315º

To make the rotor rotate with a

step angle of 45° the following
sequence need to be followed;

33
Pulse input diagram & truth table

34
 Advantage of two phase ON mode over
single phase ON mode
• The difference between single phase ON and two phase ON
mode can be observed in the transient response of the rotor
position.
• In single phase ON mode the response makes more
oscillations and takes more time to settle compared to that of
two phase ON mode.
• When the rotor oscillations occur, in the two phase ON mode
the two phases form a closed loop due to electromagnetic
induction which results in development of oscillating current
rather than the stationary current which produces holding
torque.
• This oscillating current in the two phases will be in phase
opposition and develops torque which opposes the oscillatory
motion of the rotor and hence adding a damping effect to the

35
• Where as in single phase ON mode only single phase will be made
ON for every step required and hence no such closed loop and
oscillating currents will be developed, resulting in zero damping
effect to the rotor oscillations.

Advantages of PM stepper motor:

• As the motor has permanent magnets, it has detent torque
• Low power requirement
• High detent torque as compared to VR steppe motor.
• Rotor don’t require external exciting current
• It produces more torque per ampere stator current.

Disadvantages of PM stepper motor:

• Motor has high inertia
• Slower acceleration

36
• Higher resolution cannot be achieved
Variable Reluctance Stepper motor (VR Stepper motor)
Construction:
• The construction of a VR stepper motor is quite similar to that
of a PM stepper motor except that of rotor.
• There is no permanent magnet either on the rotor or stator
• The stator construction is similar to that of a PM stepper motor
made of stacked silicon steel laminations with projected poles,
while the rotor is also made of silicon steel laminations with
poles projected outwards.
• There are basically two types of VR stepper motors based
on the number of rotor stacks used:
 Single stack VR stepper motor
 Multi stack VR stepper motor

37
Stator and Rotor construction of a typical
single stack VR stepper motor

38
 Working & operation:
• VR stepper motor works on the
principle of magnetic interaction
between an electromagnet and a
soft iron material which is movable
• i.e., whenever a soft iron material is
suspended in the magnetic field
produced by an electromagnet as
shown in fig., it experiences a force
which makes it move in a position
where the flux lines see minimum
reluctance. Working principle of
• The reluctance seen by the flux lines a VR stepper motor
corresponding to a phase excitation
will vary according to the rotor
position, hence the name variable
reluctance stepper motor is given.

39
• A VR stepper motor can be operated in various modes as in
the case of PM stepper explained in the previous topics.
• A VR stepper motors can be basically operated in the
following modes:
 1-Phase ON mode (Wave/ Full step mode)
 2-Phase ON mode (Full step mode)
 Alternate 1-phase and 2-phase ON mode (Half step
mode)

40
Consider a single stack VR
stepper motor having 6 stator
poles and 4 rotor poles with a
stepping angle of θs = 30°.

41
VR (3-phase 4-pole) Stepper motor:1-Phase ON mode
(Wave mode)
• As shown in Fig., the
diametrically opposite rotor
poles 1 & 3 are aligned to stator
poles 1 & 4 respectively of
phase A, when the switch S A is
ON.
• The stator MMF will be aligned
along the poles corresponding
to phase A and the rotor will
align to a position offering
minimum reluctance to MMF of
phase A.
• Here, the rotor makes an angle
θ = 0° and this state provides a
rest or equilibrium position to
the rotor and it cannot move

42
until phase A is de-energized.
 When Phase “A” is
energized rotor teeth 1 &
3 align with the stator
teeth 1 & 4.
 At this instant θ=0̊

43
• Next phase B is energized by turning ON the semiconductor
switch SB and phase A is de – energized by turning OFF SA.
• Then the rotor poles 1 & 3 and 2 & 4 experience torques in
opposite direction.
• When the rotor and stator teeth are out of alignment in the
excited phase the magnetic reluctance is large.
• The torque experienced by 1 & 3 is in counter clockwise
direction and that of 2 & 4 is in clockwise direction.
• The latter is more than the former.
• As a result the rotor makes an angular displacement of 30°
in clockwise direction so that the stator poles 3 & 6 and rotor
poles 2 & 4 are in alignment.
• There is no need to excite the phase A with reverse polarity
as the rotor doesn’t have any magnetic polarity as in the
case of PM stepper motor

44
 When Phase “B” is
energized rotor teeth 2
& 4 align with the stator
teeth 3 & 6.
 The rotor steps forward
through an angle of 30̊
 At this instant θ=30̊

45
 When Phase “C” is
energized rotor teeth 1 &
3 align with the stator
teeth 2 & 5.
 The rotor steps forward
through an angle of
another 30̊
 At this instant θ=60̊

46
 Again when Phase “A”
is energized rotor teeth
4 & 2 align with the
stator teeth 1 & 4.
 The rotor steps forward
through an angle of
another 30̊
 At this instant θ=90̊

47
Truth table for switching operation
(1-Phase ON mode)

48
Pulse sequence:

To make the rotor rotate in clock-wise and counter clock-wise

direction with a step angle of 30°, the following sequence need
to be followed:

49
VR (3-phase 4-pole) Stepper motor (2-Phase ON mode):
• In this mode, always two phases will excited for every
step, as explained above in the case of PM stepper motor,
but there is no need of change in current polarity through
the winding unlike in the case of PM stepper motors.
• When phases A and B are
energized together, the
resultant stator MMF will be
positioned in a point mid-way
between the two adjacent full
step positions and the rotor
poles 1&3 and 2&4 will
experience torque from both
phases (A&B) and comes to a
rest position, θ = 15°, in line
with the stator MMF.

50
• To make the rotor rotate in clock-wise direction, if the phases
B and C are excited, the rotor occupies a position mid-way
between the phases B and C is equal to θ = 45°.
• To reverse the direction of rotation switching sequence need
to be changed.
• The main advantage of this type of operation is that torque
developed by the stepper motor is more than that due to
single phase ON mode of operation.
• To make the rotor rotate in clock-wise and counter clock-wise
direction with a step angle of 30°, the following sequence
need to be followed:

51
Truth table for switching operation
(2-Phase ON mode)

52
 VR (3-phase 4-pole) Stepper motor
(Alternate 1-Phase & 2-Phase ON mode)
In this mode of operation, the rotor of the stepper motor will
move by an angle equal to half of the full step angle.
It is basically the combination of both 1-phase and 2-phase ON
mode.

53
 Truth table for switching operation
(Alternate 1-Phase & 2-Phase ON mode)

54
Pulse sequence:

To make the rotor rotate in clock-wise and counter

clock-wise direction with a step angle of 30°, the
following sequence need to be followed:

55
Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor (8/6)

Principle of Operation:

• Reluctance of the magnetic

circuit formed by the rotor
and stator teeth varies with
the angular position of the
rotor

• Here, when we energize

coils A and A’ (Phase A)

• Rotor “steps” to align such

that rotor teeth 1 & 4 in line
with stator teeth 1 & 5

56
Energize coils B and B’
(Phase B)

• Rotor steps “forward” by

150
• Rotor teeth 3 & 6 align
with Stator teeth 4 & 8

Let
Ns = 8 and Nr = 6
β = Step Angle in space
degrees

= 150

57
Energize Phase C and C’
(Phase C)

• Rotor steps forward

another 15°
• Rotor teeth 2 & 5 align
with Stator teeth 3 & 7.

58
Energize Phase D and D’
(Phase D)

• Rotor steps forward another

15°
• Rotor teeth 1 & 4 align with
Stator teeth 2 & 6.

59
Repeat the sequence:

Energize Phase A

• Rotor steps forward again

• Rotor teeth 6 & 3 align with
Stator teeth 1 & 5

60
Switching Circuit for the
stepper motor:

• Close switches in order 1, 2,

3, and 4 to turn the rotor
“clockwise”

• Close switches in reverse

order 4, 3, 2, and 1 to
change rotation to the
opposite (counter-clockwise)
direction

61
 Points to remember
• In order to achieve smaller stepping angle or higher
resolution it is possible only in the case of VR stepper motor,
as in PM stepper motor the size of PM rotor tooth cannot be
reduced to accommodate more number of rotor poles.
• Détente torque exists in stepper motors as it is having,
permanent magnet as rotor material.
• It is absent in the case of VR stepper motor
• For a given ampere current of stator the torque developed
will be less in the case of VR stepper motor (compared to
rotor having permanent magnet) as the stator current need
to do two works, useful (active) work is production of torque,
useless (reactive) work is magnetization of rotor core.
• Weight is more in the case of PM stepper motor and hence it
has higher inertia and hence it accelerates slowly.

62
Micro stepping of stepper motor
• Micro-stepping is a way of moving the stator flux of a
stepper more smoothly than in full-step or half-step drive
modes by controlling the current magnitude in the phase
windings.
• This results in less vibration, and makes noiseless stepping
possible down to 0 Hz.
• It also makes smaller step angles and better positioning
possible.
• In micro stepping, the step angle of the VR stepper motor is
very small and is other than full and half step angles.
This can be achieved basically in two possible ways:
• Firstly, the current through the two phase winding is
controlled such that, when magnitude of current is one
phase winding is decreasing in steps, the current through
other phase winding should be increasing in same steps

63
and vice-versa can also be done.
• The second way is by keeping current magnitude in one
phase winding constant (maximum value) and increasing
the current through other winding in steps up-to maximum
value.
• So that, the stator MMF position can be controlled smoothly
form first phase till half step angle.
• When the current magnitude through both the winding is
same i.e, maximum value, the stator MMF will be positioned
exactly at half step position.
• Next, the current magnitude through the first phase will be
reduced slowly in steps up-to zero.
• So that, the stator MMF position can be controlled smoothly
form half step angle till the second phase.
• In both the ways, the position of stator MMF is controlled by
controlling the current magnitudes in the phase windings.
• The figure below shows how the stator MMF is positioned
for different modes of operation of stepper motor.

64
Stator MMF position for different operating
modes of stepper motor

65
Current waveform in the form of stepped sine
through phase windings

66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
 Multi stack VR stepper motor
• The motor is divided along
its axis into a number of
stacks (both stator and
rotor).
• The number of stator stacks
is always equal to the
number of rotor stacks.
• Each stator stack is
energized by a separate
winding (phase) as shown
in Fig.
• These stacks are
magnetically isolated from
each other.
• The most common type is
the three-stack, three-phase

76
motors;
• These motors are characterized by having the same number of
teeth in each of the stator stacks and in each of the rotor
stacks.
• However, the poles on these stacks (either the stator or rotor)
are not aligned the same way to avoid magnetic locking of the
rotor poles with the stator poles.
• There will be two possible ways of aligning the poles on stator
and rotor.
• Firstly, if the poles on all the stator stacks are aligned in the
same way, then the poles on each rotor stacks must have
some offset angle/displacement with respect to the other rotor
stacks.
• The offset angle in this case will be 1/m times the rotor tooth
pitch Tr.
• And the second possible way is, by aligning the poles on all the
rotor stacks in the similar fashion and there by aligning the
poles on all stator stacks with offset angle/displacement with
respect to each other (stator stack).

77
• The offset angle in this case will be 1/m times the stator tooth
78
• Let us now consider the first possible way of multi-stack VR
stepper motor, with offset in rotor stacks.
• To understand the operation of a multi-stack stepper motor a
three stack VR stepper motor is considered with offset in rotor
poles as shown below.

79
• Energizing phase (Stator stack) A: when stack A winding of
stator is energized, the teeth on rotor stack A will move to align
themselves with the stator teeth of stack A.
• As all the rotor stacks are placed on a common shaft, when rotor
stack A has moved the remaining rotor stacks also move, as
shown in fig.

Rotor stack A aligned to stator stack, when phase A is excited

• Energizing phase (Stator stack) B: when stack B winding is

then energized while stack A winding is de-energized, the teeth
on rotor stack B will align themselves with the stator teeth in stack
B.
• This will result in a counter clockwise rotation of the rotor by an

80
angle equal to 1/3 rd of the rotor tooth pitch, as shown in next fig.
 Rotor stack B aligned to stator stack, when phase B is excited

Energizing phase (Stator stack) C: when stack C winding is then

energized while stack B winding is de-energized, the teeth on rotor
stack C will align themselves with the stator teeth in stack C. This
will result in a counter clockwise rotation of the rotor by an angle
equal to 1/3 rd of the rotor tooth pitch, as shown in fig.

81
Rotor stack C aligned to stator stack, when phase C is excited
Advantages of VR stepper motor:
 Low rotor inertia
 High torque to inertia ratio
 Capable of higher stepping rate
 Higher resolution
 High speed slewing capability
 Higher acceleration
 3, 4 and 5 phase, single and multi-stack models available

Disadvantages of VR stepper motor

 No detent torque available

 Lower efficiencies at low voltages and stepping rates.
 For a given phase current, the active component is lesser
than that of other types.
 Exhibits mid-range resonance at some stepping rates.

82
 Hybrid Stepper motor
• As the name
implies, the hybrid
stepper motor
combines the
features of the PM
and the VR stepper
motors.
• The torque
developed by this
motor is greater
than that of the PM
or VR types.

83
Construction:

• The fig. below shows the

basic construction of a
hybrid stepper motor.
• The construction is similar
to that of a VR or a PM
stepper motor.
• However, the rotor
construction combines the
design of the rotors of both
VR and PM stepper motor.
• The rotor of a hybrid stepper motor consists of two identical
stacks of soft iron as well as an axially magnetized round
permanent magnet.
• The two soft iron stacks are attached to the north and
south poles of the permanent magnet as shown in figure

84
• At one end, the stack attains North (N) magnetic polarity and
the other end, stack gets south magnetic polarity.
• The two stacks have an angular displacement of one half of
the rotor tooth pitch.
• Thus the rotor teeth on one end becomes the North Pole and
those at the other end becomes the South Pole.
• The stator has salient
pole structure which is
continuous from one
end to the other end of
the stator structure.
• The stator poles carry
concentrated windings
like other types of
stepping motors

85
• When phase winding A is energized with current Ia N-pole at A1
and south pole at A2 are created on the stator.
• Pole at A1 attracts South Pole of rear end and pole at A2 attracts
North Pole of front end as shown in fig.
• The equilibrium position of rotor structure results in maximum flux
linkages with the phase winding A.
• Hence the position θ = 0°.
• For turning the rotor clockwise through a step, de-energize phase
winding A and excite phase B so that North Pole at B1 and South
Pole at B2 are created on stator.
• Pole at B1 attracts South Pole of rear end and pole at B2 attracts
North Pole of front end, so a step angular rotation of 30°

86
clockwise is achieved which is shown in fig.
Advantages of Hybrid stepper motor

 Detent torque is available

 Lesser tendency to resonate
 High stepping rate capability
 High efficiency at lower speeds and lower stepping rates
 Higher holding torque capability
 Better damping due to presence of rotor magnet

Disadvantages of Hybrid stepper motor

 Higher inertia and weight due to presence of rotor magnet

 Performance affected by change in magnetic strength.

87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Switching configurations for stepper motor

• There are basically three types of configurations for the

switching the phases of the stepper motor
• H-type configuration with unipolar supply and four
switching devices per phase.
• Bipolar supply configuration with two switching devices
per phase.
• Unipolar supply with centre tapped phase winding and
with two switching devices per phase
H-type configuration
• This configuration can be used
where there is a need for bi-
directional current flow through
the phase windings
• Complete utilization of winding
will take place in this

95
configuration.
Bipolar supply configuration

• Bipolar supply configuration

uses two different supplies for
bi-directional current flow
unlike the previous
configuration.
• In this configuration also
complete utilization of winding
takes place.

Unipolar supply with centre

tapped phase winding

In this configuration a unipolar

supply with only two switching
devices per phase and two
freewheeling diodes will be used

96
for each phase winding.
Optimum number of stator poles (Ns) and rotor poles
(Nr)
The number of stator poles and rotor poles decides the step
angle and hence the resolution of the motor.
• The minimum stepping angle can be achieved either by
increasing the number of stator poles or the number of rotor
poles.
• If the number of stator poles is increased, the number of
phases increases and hence more windings are required.
• This increases the number of switching devices and hence the
switching complexity.
• Hence, the better alternative seems to be increasing the
number of rotor poles, which is possible only in the case of VR
stepper motor as explained earlier.
• So, by increasing the number of poles on stator and rotor the
resolution can be increased but the torque developed will be

97
Let us consider some common combinations of stator-rotor
poles and analyze the torque developed, stepping angle taken
etc.

• Ns = 8 and Nr = 6; Step angle, θs = 15°; Electrical angle θ = Nr × θs = 90°

• Ns = 6 and Nr = 8; Step angle, θs = 15°; Electrical angle θ = Nr × θs = 120°
• Ns = 6 and Nr = 4; Step angle, θs = 30°; Electrical angle θ = Nr × θs = 120°
• Ns = 4 and Nr = 6; Step angle, θs = 30°; Electrical angle θ = Nr × θs = 180°

• The torque developed by the motor is proportional to

sin (Electrical angle θ).
• In order to increase the resolution and to improve the torque
developed by the motor, of the above mentioned
combinations the first combination (i) is best suitable than
the remaining.

98
Characteristics of Stepper motor

• There are basically two types of characteristics for a stepper

motor, based on the mode of excitation.
• One characteristics corresponds to the excitation of only a
single phase, named as Static characteristics
• The other corresponds to the excitation of phases one after
the other according to the required sequence with different
stepping rates, named as Dynamic characteristics.

Static characteristics
Angle – Torque Characteristics:
The angle – torque characteristics
shows the relationship between the
angular displacement of the rotor
and the torque externally applied to
the motor shaft while the motor is
excited at the rated current.

99
• At stable point (1) if there is
any external application of a
force to the motor, shaft will
produce torque T (+).
• The shaft will stop when the
external force equals this
torque at point (2).
• If additional external force is
applied, there is an angle at
which the torque produced will
reach its maximum at point
(3).
• This torque is called the
maximum holding torque TH
• Application of external force in
excess of this value will drive
the rotor to an unstable point
(5) and beyond, producing
torque T (−) in the same
direction as the external force,

100
so that it moves to the next
stable point (1) and stops.
• Stable Points: The points where rotor stops, with the stator
teeth and rotor teeth are exactly aligned. These points are
extremely stable, and the rotor will always stop there if no
external force is applied.

• Unstable Points: The points where stator teeth and rotor

teeth are half a rotor teeth pitch out of alignment. A rotor at
these points will move to the next stable point to the left or
right, even under the slightest external force.

• The maximum value of static torque is known as the ‘Holding

torque or peak static torque’.
• At equilibrium position the torque developed by the motor is
called as Holding torque, TH.

• The peak static torque is a function of the phase current;

however it is often cited as a single value corresponding to

101
the rated phase current
• As shown in figure, the torque
versus step angle
characteristics the torque
developed by the machine
increases almost sinusoidally
until the step angle, θs and
after θs up to a critical rotor
position, θc the torque
developed will remain
constant equal to TH.
• Now when an external torque greater than the holding torque
is applied to the motor, the rotor will come out of equilibrium
and the rotor comes out of equilibrium position exceeding θc.
• After that critical rotor position, the torque developed by the
machine gradually decreases as shown in figure.

102
• The other type of static characteristics is torque versus phase current
characteristics which indicates the variation of torque developed by the
stepper motor when the phase current through a particular phase winding is
gradually increased.
• Here, when the current is zero there will be some torque developed by the
motor called as Detent torque TD, which exists only in motors having
permanent magnet rotors.
• When the phase current is gradually increased the torque developed by the
motor also increases (ideally linear) and when the current is equal to rated
current the torque developed will remain constant at holding torque, TH.
• Torque constant of the stepper is defined as the initial slope of the torque-

103
current (T-I) curve of the stepper motor. It is denoted by Kt. It is also known
as torque sensitivity. Its units N-m/A, kg-cm/A or OZ-in/A
Holding Torque (TH):

• It is the maximum load torque which the energized stepper

motor can withstand without slipping from equilibrium position.
• If the holding torque is exceeded, the motor suddenly slips
from the present equilibrium position and goes to the static
equilibrium position.

Detent torque (TD):

• It is the maximum load torque which the un-energized stepper

motor can withstand slipping.
• Detent torque is due to magnetism, and is therefore available
only in permanent magnet and hybrid stepper motor. It is
about 5-10 % of holding torque.

104
Dynamic characteristics
Stepper motor is said to be operated in synchronism when there exist
strictly one to one correspondence between number of pulses applied
and the number of steps through which the motor has actually moved.

There are two modes of operation:

Start-Stop mode:
• Also called as pull in curve or single stepping mode.
• In start–stop mode the stepper motor always operate in
synchronism and the motor can be started and stopped without
using synchronism.

Slewing mode:
• In this mode, the motor will be in synchronism, but it cannot be
started or stopped without losing synchronism.
• To operate the motor in slewing mode first the motor is to be started
in start-stop mode and then to slewing mode.

105
• Similarly to stop the motor operating in slewing mode, first the motor
is to be brought to the start-stop mode and then stop.
 Fig. (a) Start-stop mode (b) Slewing mode
• Start-stop mode of operation of stepper motor is shown in fig.(a).
• In this mode, second pulse is given to the stepper motor only after the
rotor attained an equilibrium or rest position due to first pulse.
• The region of start-stop mode of operation depends on torque developed
and the stepping rate or stepping frequency of stepper motor.
• The second pulse is given to the stepper motor only after the rotor
attained a steady or rest position due to first pulse.
• In slewing mode of operation of stepper motor as shown in fig.(b) the
second pulse to the motor is given before the rotor has attained the
equilibrium position due to first pulse.
• The stepping rate in this mode will be quite high when compared to that of

106
start-stop mode.
The characteristics shown here
correspond to the pull-in and pull-out
curves shown above of a stepper
motor.
• Pull in torque: It is the maximum
torque developed by the stepper
motor for a given stepping rate in
the start-stop mode of operation
without losing synchronism. In the
fig. O’B represents the pull in torque
with corresponding stepping rate
O’M. Fig.: Dynamic characteristics

• Pull out torque: It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor
for a given stepping rate in the slewing mode without losing synchronism.
In fig. O’C represents the pull-out torque w.r.t the stepping rate O’M.

• Pull out range: It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper
motor can operate in slewing mode developing a specified torque without
losing synchronism.

107
• In fig. NP represents the pull out range for a torque of O’A. The range NP
is known slewing range.
• Pull in rate (FPI): It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper
motor will start or stop without losing synchronism against a given load
torque.
• Pull out rate (FPO): It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper
motor will slew, without missing steps, against load torque.
• Synchronism: This term means one to one correspondence between the
number of pulses applied to the stepper motor and the number of steps
through which the motor has actually moved.

Mid-frequency resonance:
• In the pull-in curve of the stepper
motors, practically at some response
ranges the curve suddenly reaches
critically lowest value of torque as
shown in fig.
• This phenomenon in general is
known as Mid-frequency resonance
which depicts the instable operation
of motor.
• Hence it is recommended to avoid

108
that particular response range to
improve the motor performance.
Torque Equation

Consider a variable reluctance stepper motor. Let

v(t) = applied voltage per phase
i(t) = current per phase
θ(t) = angular displacement
R = resistance per phase
L(θ) = inductance per phase

The voltage equation of the stator phase can be given as

follows

109
110
111
Control of stepper motor
• Stepper motors which are generally used as position actuators.
• Some other stepper motor applications are to drive floppy discs,
numerical control of machine tools, X-Y plotters etc.
• The speed and position control using the stepper motor can be
achieved without expensive feedbacks.
• Electronic circuits are used to excite the stator phases from dc supply.
• Now a days, semiconductor devices such as thyristors and transistors
are slowly replacing the mechanical and electronic controls using
vacuum tubes.
• The necessary logic which was expensive even with the introduction
of semicon­ductor devices and electronic circuits has become easy
and economical using microprocessors and digital circuits.
• The microprocessor has actually made a stepper motor and its control
economically feasible.
• The microprocessors are employed for the control of stepper motors
which are generally used as position actuators.

112
• The ease with which these can be controlled using microprocessor
has made them very popular in the applications cited above.
Open loop control of Stepper Motor Applications is the simplest
method accomplished by means of step command pulses
obtained from an external source.
• The motor is excited by these pulses and is expected to follow
every pulse.
• This kind of control of stepper motor is very attractive and has
wide acceptance in applications of speed and position control.
• The method has economic advantages. However it has its own
limitations.
• The response of the motor to a given input command may
become oscillatory or even unstable in some speed ranges.
• The control of the motor is not very fast due to this behaviour.
• A stepper motor applications may fail to follow the pulse when
the frequency of the pulses is high or the load inertia is very
large.
• Because of these reasons the open loop operation is only

113
limited.
The open loop control of the motor is depicted in Fig. 8.24(a).
• For most of the application open loop control is suitable.

114
A closed loop control of Stepper Motor applications is also possible
where the switching of the motor takes place by means of the input pulse
train using the position or speed feedback from the rotor.

• The closed loop control improves the performance of the Stepper Motor
Applications.
• No step failure occurs, the response is quicker and the motion is
smoother.
• The control is free from instability and capable of quick acceleration.
• A position sensor senses the rotor position and provides the information
necessary for the control of the motor.
• A mechanical rotor position sensor with an optical encoder coupled to
the shaft is used.
• The rotor position may also be determined using the machine voltages
and currents.
• The closed loop control is employed when the maximum torque is
required of a given motor and also when absolute step integrity is

115
required.
A closed loop control of the motor is shown in Fig.8.24(b).

116
Open loop control of 3-phase VR stepper motor:

117
• The control circuit for 3-ph stepper motor using JK flip-flops is
shown in fig. (a) and corresponding power circuit is shown in (b).
• The output of one FF is connected to input terminals of next FF in
cyclic manner
• Assume initially that the FFs are with Qa =1,Qb= 0 and Qc = 0
• Now if a clock pulse appears, it flips Qa to 0 and Qb to 1 and Qc
remains at zero as before
• The next clock pulse changes Qb to zero and Qc to 1 while Qa
remains at zero
• Thus the arrival of each clock pulse de-energises an already
excited phase and energises a new phase

118
• However this control suffers from lack of direction control
119
120
Applications of stepper
motor
 Instrumentation applications
Quartzwatches
Synchronized clocks
Camera shutter operation
 Computer peripherals
Dot matrix and line printers
Floppy disk drives
Digital X-Y plotter
Magnetic tape transport
Paper tape drive

121
 Office equipment
Electronic type writer
`Facsimile machine
 Machine tool applications
CNC machines and lathes
Index tables used in automatic assembly and machining operations
 Robotics

 Electro-medical applications
X-ray machines
Radiation therapy units
CAT-Scanners, ultrasound scanners
 Miscellaneous applications
Nuclear reactors
Aerospace
Industrial application where positioning is needed.
84

122
123
124