INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS

• Mechatronics is a japanese word which denotes the

combination of “mecha” from mechanism and
“ tronics” from electronics.
Mechatronics = mechanics+ electronics + computing
DEFINITION
Mechatronics is defined as a multi-disciplinary field of
study that implies the synergistic integration of electronic
engineering, electrical engineering , control engineering
and intelligent computer control with mechanical
engineering for the design and manufacture of products
and processes
• Synergistic – means various parts
Mechatronic system

• The interfacing components present in a mechatronics field

connected to form a system known as mechatronic system.
• The interfacing components are mechanical system, electrical
system, electronic system etc.
System
• A system may be defined as a black box which has an input and an
output. System is concerned only with the relationship between the
input and output and not on the process going on inside the box.

input motor output

Electric power Rotation

Elements of a Mechatronic system
Block diagram of a mechatronic system
• Sensors and actuators
• Signals and conditioning
• Digital logic systems
• Software and data acquisition systems
• Output signal conditioning and interfacing
• Computer and display devices
Development of mechatronics has gone
through three stages
• First level – Introducing time : technologies used in mechatronics
system developed rather independently and individually.
• Second level – Synergistic integration of different technologies started
taking place
Ex: Opto electronics (Integration of optics and electronics)
• Third level- Increased use of computational intelligence in
mechatronics product and system. // Machine Intelligence Quotient
(MIQ)
• Possibility of miniaturization of components (in the form of micro
actuators and micro sensors) // micromechatronics
Examples of mechatronic systems

• Computers, Disk drives, Photocopiers, Scanners, fax machines,

washing machines, CNC machines, Vacuum cleaners, Televisions,
Digital cameras, CD players, Air conditioning units, Security systems,
Automatic gate control system, Robots, Automated Guided Vehicles
(AGV), Automatic teller machines, Flight control actuators, Landing
gear systems etc.
computer disk drive

WASHING
MACHINE
Objectives
Objectives , Advantages , Disadvantages

1. To improve products and processes.

2. To develop novel mechanisms
3. To design new products
4. To creative new technology using novel concepts.

Advantages
• Mechatronic systems have made it very easy to design processes
and products.
• Mechatronic systems help in optimizing performance and quality.
Disadvantages
• Field of mechatronics requires a knowledge of different disciplines.
• The design cannot be finalized and safety issues are complicated .
Mechatronics Applications
• Medical --- Implant devices, assisted surgery.
• Defence --- Under water vehicles, jet engines.
• Automotive ---Climate control, antilock brake, cruise control, air bags,
speedometer display.
• Manufacturing --- Robotics , Machines
• Smart consumer products ---
• Electronic home appliances --- Home security, microwave oven,
washing machine, cameras, sewing machines etc.
Sensors
 Sensors are electronic devices that measure the physical
quantity or produces a signal relating to the quantity being
measured.
Input Signal Output Signal

Sensor

A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a

signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
Physical quantities can be temperature, pressure,light….
Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical
phenomena into an electrical signal
Active element of a sensor is called a transducer
Transducer
• A device which converts one form of energy to another
• When input is a physical quantity and output electrical → Sensor
• When input is electrical and output a physical quantity → Actuator

Sensors Actuators e.g. Piezoelectric:

Electrical Input Force -> voltage
Physical
parameter Voltage-> Force

=> Ultrasound!

Electrical Physical Output

Output Microphone, Loud Speaker
• Sensors are electronics devices that measure the
physical quantity or produces a signal relating to the
quantity being measured. Physical quantities can be
temperature, pressure, light, current, weight etc.
• Transducers are defined as elements that when
subject to some change experience a related change.
Thus we can say sensors are transducers, but a
measurement system may use transducers in addition
to the sensors.
Sensors , transducers
• Transducers are electric or electronic devices that transform energy
from one form to another. Transducers are elements that when
subject to some physical change experience a related change.
• Sensor is an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity
being measured.
• An actuator accepts energy and produces movement (action).
Commonly Measured Quantities
Stimulus Quantity

Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave

Velocity

Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase,

polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,

Permeability

Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,

Pressure, Torque
Choosing a Sensor
Need for Sensors
• Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our bodies, automobiles,
airplanes, cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants
and countless other applications.

• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!

• pervasive --spreading widely throughout an area
PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
• Static and Dynamic Characteristics

• The Static characteristics are the values given after

the steady-state conditions occur, i.e. the values given
when the transducer has settled down after receiving
some input.
Static
Dynamic
Static Characteristics
Range and Span: The region between the limits within
which an input can vary is called the range of a sensor.
The algebraic difference between the maximum and
minimum limits of an input value is known as span of a
sensor .
For example, the temperature,
Range = 10o C to 50o C and
Span =50 - 10= 40o C
• Accuracy : Accuracy may be defined as the
degree of closeness to the true value of the
quantity being measured.
• Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability.
Precision refers to the degree of closeness of agreement
within which a group of measurements are repeatedly
made under the prescribed conditions.
• Resolution: Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest
change in the input value that is required to cause an
appreciable change in the output.
• Sensitivity : It is defined as the ratio of the change in
output signal to change in the input quantity.
If the sensitivity is constant , then the sensor is said to be
linear one. If the sensitivity is variable, then the sensor is
said to be non-linear one.
• Noise: A signal generated by internal circuitry or
external interference that is superimposed or added to
the output signal.
• Drift: The term drift is an undesirable change or gradual
departure in output over a period of time that is
unrelated to change in input, operating conditions or
load. Zero drift is used when there is a change in output
at zero input.
• Non-linearity Error: The maximum deviation of the
output curve from the best-fit straight line curve during a
calibration cycle is known as non-linearity error.
• a) End Point Method : A straight line is drawn by joining
simply the end points of the range and the difference between
the straight line and a output curve gives linearity error value.
• b) Least Square Linearity Through All Points : A best fit
straight line is determined by the method of least squares.
Considering all the data values are in error.
• c) Least Square Linearity Through Zero Point : A best fit
straight line is determined by the method of least squares
considering that the line passes through the zero point.
Hysteresis Error
• When input increases, output also increases and a
calibration curve can be drawn. If input is decreased
from maximum value and if output does not follow the
same curve, then there will be a residual output when
input is zero. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
• The algebraic difference in output for increasing and
decreasing values is known as Hysteresis Error.
• Threshold is the minimum value of the input required
to cause the pointer to move from zero position.
• Dead band or Dead zone is the largest range of input
values for which there is no output. It is caused by
factors such as friction, backlash and hysteresis.
• Backlash may be defined as the maximum distance or
angle through which part of a mechanical system can
be moved without causing any motion of next part of
the system.
Dynamic Characteristics
• The Dynamic characteristics refer to the behaviour
between the time that the input value changes and the
time that the value given by the transducer settles
down to the steady-state
• Speed of response: Indicates how fast the sensor
(measurement system) reacts to changes in the input
variable. (Step input)
• Rise time: Rise time is the time required for the output to
rise from 10% to 95% of the steady state value.
• Time constant: The time constant is the measure of the
inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to
changes in its input. The time for the output to change by
63.2% of its maximum possible change.
• Settling time: Settling time is the time laken by a system to
be within a close range of its steady-slate value.
• Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output
and input changes with the input frequency.
(sinusoidal input)
• Dynamic error, δ(ω) = M(ω) - 1a measure of the
inability of a system or sensor to adequately
reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular
frequency
• Bandwidth of a system is ihe range of frequencies for
which its dynamic sensitivity is satisfactory.
• Settling time is the time laken by a system to be
within a close range of its steady-slate value.
Pressure sensors - introduction

• Sensing of pressure is only second in importance to

sensing of strain in mechanical systems
• These sensors are used either in their own right, (to
measure pressure), or to sense secondary quantities
such as force, power, temperature and the like.
• One of the reasons for their prominence is that in
sensing gases and fluids, force is not an option – only
pressure can be measured and related to properties
of these substances.
Pressure sensors - introduction

• Another reason for their widespread use and of

exposure of most people to them is their use in cars,
atmospheric weather prediction, heating and other
consumer oriented devices.
• The “barometer” hanging on many a wall and the use
of atmospheric pressure as indication of weather
conditions has helped popularize the concept of
pressure and pressure sensing
Pressure sensors - Units

• The basic SI unit of pressure is the pascal:

• 1 pascal [Pa] = 1 newton per square meter [N/m2]
• The pascal is an exceedingly small unit
• kPa = 103 Pa
• Mpa = 106 Pa.
• Other often units are
• bar – 1 bar = 0.1 Mpa
• torr – 1 torr = 133Pa.
• millibar (1.333 torr=100Pa)
• microbar (1 bar = 0.1 Pa)
Pressure sensors - Units

• In common use - the atmosphere defined as

• “the pressure exerted by a 1 meter column of water at 4C on one
square centimeter.
• 1 atm = 0.101 Mpa = 760 torr
• The use of the atmosphere indicates a totally parallel
system of pressure based either on a column of water or a
column of mercury.
• The torr (named after Torricelli) is defined as the pressure
exerted by a 1mm of mercury (at 0C and normal
atmospheric pressure)
Pressure sensors - Units

• In the US the common (non-metric) unit of pressure is

the psi (pounds per square inch):
• 1 psi = 6.89 kPa = 0.0703 atm.
• Vacuum is often used, sometimes as a separate quantity.
• Vacuum means lack of pressure,
• Understood as indicating pressure below ambient.
• One talks about so many psi of vacuum
• This simply refers to so many psi below ambient pressure.
System of units for pressurs
Pressure sensing

• Pressure is force per unit area

• Sensing it follows the same principle as the sensing of
force –
• Measuring the displacement of an appropriate member
of the sensor in response to pressure.
• The range of methods is quite large and includes
thermal, optical as well as magnetic and electrical
principles.
• Earliest sensors were purely mechanical
Mechanical pressure sensors

• Mechanical pressure sensors.

• Direct transduction from pressure to mechanical displacement
• These devices are actuators that react to pressure
• Are as common today as ever.
• Some mechanical devices have been combined with other
sensors to provide electrical output
• Others are still being used in their original form.
• The most common of these is the Bourdon tube.
The Bourdon Tube
Mechanical pressure sensors

• Has been used for over a century in pressure gauges

• The dial indicator is connected directly to the tube.
• Still the most common pressure gauge used today
• does not need additional components
• simple
• inexpensive.
• Typically used for gases but it can also be used for sensing fluid
pressure.
• Tire gauges, fuel gauges, etc.
Bellows and diaphragms

• Principle: expansion of a diaphragm or a bellows

under the influence of pressure.
• The motion produces may be used to directly drive an
indicator or
• May be sensed by a displacement sensor (LVDT,
magnetic, capacitive etc.)
• A simple diaphragm pressure sensor used in wall
barometers is shown in Figure 6.24.
Diaphragm pressure sensor
Bellows and diaphragms

• One side is held fixed (in this case by the small screw which also
serves to adjust, or calibrate it)
• The other moves in response to pressure.
• The device is hermetically sealed at a given pressure
• Any pressure below the internal pressure will force the
diaphragm to expand (like a baloon)
• Any higher pressure will force it to contract.
• Very simple and trivially inexpensive, but:
• Possibility of leakage
• Dependence on temperature.
Bellows and diaphragms

• A bellows (Figure 6.25) is a similar device

• Can be used for direct reading or to activate
another sensor.
• The bellows, in various forms is also being
used as an actuator.
• One of its common uses is in “vacuum motors”
used in vehicles to activate valves and to move
slats and doors, particularly in heating and air
conditioning systems.
Membranes and plates
• The most common devices used for pressure sensing are the thin
plate and the diaphragm or membrane.
• Membrane: a thin plate with negligible thickness
• Thin plate: a thick membrane
• Their behavior and response to pressure is different. In relation to
Figure 6.26, the deflection of the center of a membrane (maximum
deflection) which is under radial tension S and the stress in the
diaphragm are given as:
Membrane and thin plate
Membranes and thin plates
• In relation previous figure, the deflection of the center
of a membrane (maximum deflection) which is under
radial tension S, and the stress in the diaphragm are
given as:
2
dm = r P , m = S
4S t
P is the applied pressure difference between the top and bottom of the
membrane
r its radius
t its thickness
Membranes and thin plates
• If the thickness t is not negligible, the behavior is
different and given as:
3 1  v 2 r 4P 3r 2P
dm = , m =
16Et 2 4t 2
E is the Young’s modulus
V is the Poisson’s ratio

The displacement is linear with pressure – hence

their widespread use for pressure sensing.
Pressure sensors
• Pressure sensors come in four basic types :
• Absolute pressure sensors (PSIA): pressure sensed relative to absolute vacuum.
• Differential pressure sensors (PSID): the difference between two pressures on
two ports of the sensor is sensed.
• Gage pressure sensors (PSIG): the pressure relative to ambient pressure is
sensed. (Most common)
• Sealed gage pressure sensor (PSIS): the pressure relative to a sealed pressure
chamber (usually 1 atm at sea level or 14.7 psi) is sensed.
Piezoresistive pressure sensors
• Piezoresistor is a semiconductor strain gauge
• Most modern pressure sensors use it rather than the conductor type
strain gauge.
• Resistive (metal) strain gauges are used only at higher temperature or
for specialized applications
• May be fabricated of silicon
• simplifies construction
• allows on board temperature compensation, amplifiers and conditioning
circuitry.
Piezoresistive pressure sensors
• Basic structure:
• two gauges are parallel to one dimension of the diaphragm
• The two gauges can be in other directions
Piezoresistive pressure sensors
• The change in resistance of the two piezoresistos is:

R1 =  R2 = 1    
y x
R1 R2 2

 is an average sensitivity (gauge) coefficient and

x and y are the stresses in the transverse directions
Piezoresistive pressure sensors
• Piezoresistors and the diaphragm are fabricated of
silicon.
• A vent is provided, making this a gage sensor.
• If the cavity under the diaphragm is hermetically
closed and the pressure in it is P0, the sensor
becomes a sealed gage pressure sensor sensing
the pressure P-P0.
• A differential sensor is produced by placing the
diaphragm between two chambers, each vented
through a port (figure).
Differential pressure sensor
Piezoresistive pressure sensors
• A different approach is to use a single
strain gauge
• A current passing through the strain
gauge
• Pressure applied perpendicular to the
current.
• The voltage across the element is
measured as an indication of the stress
and therefore pressure.
Construction
• Many variations
• Body of sensor is particularly important
• Silicon, steel, stainless steel and titanium are most commonly used
• Ports are made with various fittings
• The contact material is specified (gas, fluid, corrosivity, etc.)
Various pressure sensors
Miniature pressure sensors
Pitran pressure sensors (absolute)
150 psi differential pressure sensor
100 psi absolute pressure sensor (TO5 can)
15 and 30 psi differential pressure sensors
Capacitive pressure sensors
• The deflection of the diaphragm constitutes a capacitor in which the
distance between the plates is pressure sensitive.
• The basic structure shown in Figure 6.16 may be used or a similar
configuration devised.
• These sensors are very simple and are particularly useful for sensing
of very low pressure.
• At low pressure, the deflection of the diaphragm may be insufficient
to cause large strain but can be relatively large in terms of
capacitance.
Capacitive pressure sensors
• The capacitance may be part of an oscillator,
• The change in its frequency may be quite large making for a very sensitive sensor.
• Other advantages
• less temperature dependent
• stops on motion of the plate may be incorporated, - not sensitive to overpressure.
• Overpressures of 2-3 orders of magnitude larger than rated pressure may be
easily tolerated without ill effects.
• The sensors are linear for small displacement but at larger pressures the
diaphragm tends to bow causing nonlinear output
Magnetic pressure sensors
• A number of methods are used
• In large deflection sensors an inductive position sensor may be used
or an LVDT attached to the diaphragm.
• For low pressures, variable reluctance pressure sensor is more
practical.
• The diaphragm is made of a ferromagnetic material and is part of the
magnetic circuit shown in Figure 6.32.
Variable reluctance pressure sensor
Magnetic pressure sensors
• The reluctance is directly proportional to the length of the air gap between the
diaphragm and the E-core.
• Gap changes with pressure and the inductance of the two coils changes and
sensed directly.
• A very small deflection can cause a very large change in inductance of the circuit
making this a very sensitive device.
• Magnetic sensors are almost devoid of temperature sensitivity allowing these
sensors to operate at elevated temperatures.
Other pressure sensors
• Optoelectronic pressure sensors - Fabri-Perot optical resonator to
measure small displacements.
• light reflected from a resonant optical cavity is measured by a photodiode to
produce a measure of pressure sensed.
• A very old method of sensing low pressures (often called vacuum
sensors) is the Pirani gauge.
• based on measuring the heat loss from gases which is dependent on pressure.
The temperature is sensed and correlated to pressure, usually in an absolute
pressure sensor arrangement.
Pressure sensors - properties
• Semiconductor based sensors can only operate at low temperatures
(50 to +150C).
• Temperature dependent errors can be high unless properly
compensated (externally or internally).
• The range of sensors can exceed 50,000 psi and can be as small as a
fraction of psi.
• Impedance is anywhere between a few hundred Ohms to about 100
k, depending on device.
• Linearity is between 0.1 to 2% typically
Pressure sensors - properties
• Other speciffications include:
• Maximum pressure, burst pressure and proof pressure (overpressure)
• electrical output - either direct (no internal circuitry) or after conditioning and amplification.
• Digital outputs are also available.
• Materials used (silicon, stainless steel, etc.) and compatibility with gases and liquids are
specified
• port sizes and shapes, connectors, venting ports
• cycling of the pressure sensors is also specified
• hysteresis (usually below 0.1% of full scale)
• repeatability (typically less than 0.1% of full scale).
Displacement sensor
• Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of
amount by which some object has moved.In continous processes,
the displacement sensors are used to measure the thickness of a
sheet, the diameter of a rod.

Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into

Contact sensor and Non-contact sensor
• In contact sensors, the object to be measured comes into
mechanical contact with the sensor. The movement of the sensor
element’s is used to cause a change in electrical voltage,
resistance, capacitance or mutual inductance

• In Non-contact sensor, there is no physical contact between the

measured object and the sensor. The presence in the vicinity of the
measured object cause change in air pressure or change in
inductance or capacitance
Displacement sensor
• Measurement of displacement is on the basis of measuring
position,proximity,velocity,force,pressure etc.
They are
 Potentiometer displacement sensor
 Strain gauge displacement sensor
 Capacitive displacement sensor
 Inductive displacement sensor (LVDT, RVDT)
 Potentiometer displacement sensor
• Potentiometers are mainly used to measure displacement,pressure,position.
• It is a primary sensor which converts the linear motion or the angular motion of a shaft into
changes in resistance.
• It is a type of resistive displacement sensor.
Principle
• Linear or Rotary potentiometer is a variable resistance displacement transducer which uses
the variable resistance transduction principle in which the displacement or rotation is
converted into a potential difference due to the movement of sliding contact over a resistive
element.
Construction and working
• It consist a resistor, which has three terminals. Two
end terminals and one middle terminal(wiper). The
middle terminal is movable. The two end terminals
are connected to external input voltage signal, and
the middle terminal along with the one end terminal
is taken as output.
• The wiper slides over a resistive element to convert
the displacement into a potential difference.
potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear
displacement
Linear potentiometer

Potentiometer: electric circuit

• These type of potentiometers convert the linear motion
of the slider into change in resistance which in turn
converted into voltage (or) potential difference.
• The position of slider determiner the magnitude of the
potential difference developed.
• The voltage across the wiper of the linear
displacement potentiometer is proportional to the
displacement. Voltage across the wiper is measured in
terms of the displacement ‘d’ as
Rotary potentiometer
• The above figure shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor
employed to measure the linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of
linear or angular type. It works on the principle of conversion of mechanical
displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a resistive element and a
sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body, acting as a
movable electric contact.

The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider

by using
• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
• a cable that is kept stretched during operation
• The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track
comprises of large number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire.
Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin embedded with the carbon
powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 % while the
conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 µm.
• During the sensing operation, a voltage VS is applied across the resistive
element. A voltage divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with
the wire. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider
over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the
output voltage VA.
• In the rotary potentiometer, the slider moves in a
circular path along a resistance element, the rotational
information is converted into information in the form
of a potential difference.
• The output of the rotary transducer is proportional to
the angular movement.
• It also consist of a wiper (slider) which has contact
with a resistive element. when the wiper moves, the
resistance between the wiper and the end leads of the
device changes proportional to the angular
displacement.
• The resister element is a circular wire-wound track
which may be single turn or helical turn.
With a constant source voltage Vs, the output voltage Vo is a fractional of the input voltage

Vo/Vs = R23/R13
For a constant input voltage ‘Vs’ between 1 and 3, the output voltage ‘Vo’ between terminal 2 and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage.
This fraction is dependent on the ratio of the resistance R23 between terminals 2 and 3 compared with the total resistance R13 between
terminal 1 and 3

‘
Advantages
• Less expensive
• High output
• High electrical efficiency
• Operation is simple
• Rugged construction
Disadvantages
• Slow dynamic response
• Low resolution
• Early wear of the wiper is possible
• Applications of potentiometer

• These sensors are primarily used in the control

systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its commanded
position.
• These are typically used on machine-tool controls,
elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks,
automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these
are used in control of injection molding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics,
etc. These are also used in computer-controlled
monitoring of sports equipment.
Strain gauge displacement sensor
Strain Gauges
• At the heart of all strain gauges is the change in resistance of
materials due to change in their length due to strain.

• The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the

direction of applied load to the original length of an element.
The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore,
we can say,

• where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge

factor. In general, the value of G is considered in between 2 to 4
and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.
 Strain gauged element (1)
• Strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil or a strip of
semiconductor material, these elements can be stuck onto
surfaces like a postage stamp. When subjected to strain, its
resistance R changes, the fractional change in resistance
being proportional to the strain, ε i.e ΔR/R = Gε
• G is the gauge factor typical values are 2 for metal foil or
wires +100 for P-type, -100 for N-type semiconductor
For R=100, G=2, the change in resistance due to 0.001
strain is ΔR=RG ε =0.2 ohm

Strain is the ratio of change in length / orignal length

Strain gauges
• Strain gauges come in many forms and types.
• Any material, combination of materials or physical
configuration that changes its resistance due to strain
constitutes a strain gauge.
• Will restrict our discussion to two types that account
for most of the strain gauges in use today:
• wire (or metal) strain gauges - resistive
• Metal foil strain gauges
• semiconductor strain gauges.
Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc.
The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain gauge resistance
metallic strain gauge
• In its simplest form:
• A length of wire, held between two posts
• When a force is applied to them, will deform the wire
causing a change in the wire’s resistance.
• This method was used in the past and is valid
• It is not very practical (construction, attachment to
system, change in resistance is very small).
• Sometimes, multiple lengths of wire were used.
Semiconductor strain gauges
• Operate like resistive strain gauges
• Construction and properties are different.
• The gauge factor for semiconductors is much higher
than for metals.
• The change in conductivity due to strain is much
larger than in metals.
• Are typically smaller than metal types
• Often more sensitive to temperature variations
(require temperature compensation).
Semiconductor strain gauges
• All semiconductor materials exhibit changes in
resistance due to strain
• The most common material is silicon because of its
inert properties and ease of production.
• The base material is doped, by diffusion of doping
materials (usually boron or arsenide for p or n type) to
obtain a base resistance as needed.
• The substrate provides the means of straining the
silicon chip and connections are provided by deposition
of metal at the ends of the device.
Strain gauged element (2)
• When the flexible element is
bent or deformed as a result of
forces being applied by a
contact point being displaced,
then the electrical resistance
strain gauges mounted on the
element are strained and so
give a resistance change, which
can be monitored. The change
in resistance is thus a measure
of the displacement or
deformation of the flexible
element
• Applications of strain gauges

• Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress

analysis and diagnosis on machines and failure
analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress
fatigue testing, proof testing, residual stress and
vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending
and deflection measurement, compression and tension
measurement and strain measurement.
• Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for
machine tools and safety in automotives. In particular,
they are employed for force measurement in machine
tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact
sensors in aerospace vehicles.
Strain gauges - properties
• The properties of strain gauges vary by application
• Most metal gauges have a nominal resistance between 100 and 1000,
(lower and higher resistances are available)
• Gauge factor between 2-5
• Dimensions from less than 3x3 mm to lengths in excess of 150 mm (almost
any size may be fabricated if necessary).
• Rosettes (multiple axis strain gauges) are available with 45, 90 and 120 axes
as well as diaphragm and other specialized configurations.
Strain gauges - properties
• Typical sensitivities are 5m
• Deformation is of the order of 2-3m/m.
• Much higher strains can be measured with specialized gauges.
• Semiconductor strain gauges
• usually smaller than most resistive strain gauges
• can be made with higher resistances.
• their use is limited to low temperatures
• can be much less expensive than metal strain gauges.
• often part of another device
Strain gauges - errors
• Strain gauges are subject to a variety of errors.
• Due to temperatures - resistance, especially in semiconductors, is
affected by temperature in the same way as by strain.
• In metal gauges, this is usually small (materials with low temperature
coefficients of resistance).
• In semiconductors, temperature compensation is sometimes provided
on board or a separate sensor may be used for this purpose.
Strain gauges - errors
• Additional errors
• Due the bonding process
• Thinning of materials due to cycling.
• Most strain gauges are rated for:
• given number of cycles (i.e. 106 or 107 cycles),
• maximum strain (3% is typical for conducting strain gauges, 1% for
semiconductor strain gauges)
• temperature characteristics specified for use with a particular material
(aluminum, stainless steel, carbon steel) for optimal performance when bonded
• Typical accuracies are of the order of 0.2-0.5%.
Capacitive element based sensor
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is
primarily used to measure the linear displacements from
few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of
three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and
the lower pair another.
• The linear displacement might take in two forms:
• (a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that
the plate separation changes
• (b) area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
• The below figure shows the schematic of three-plate
capacitive element sensor and displacement measurement
of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.
Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

• where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between

the plates, εo permittivity of free space, A area of overlap
between two plates and d the plate separation.
• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one
due to the movement of the element/ workpiece of which
displacement is to be measured, separation in between the
plate changes. This can be given as,

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting

out-of-balance voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of

the object towards the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate
separation. This changes the capacitance which is used to detect the object.
• Applications of capacitive element sensors

• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications
- to measure shape errors in the part being produced
- to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine
tools such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air
bearing spindles by measuring errors in the machine tools
themselves
• Assembly line testing
- to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design
features
- to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as
glue etc.
Inductive displacement sensor
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
 Construction of LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer

used for measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about
± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full
range.It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The
central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils.
Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs
oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the element of which
displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.
Working of LVDT sensor
• The linear variable differential transformer is a
mechanical displacement transducer. It gives an a.c.
voltage output proportional to the distance of the
transformer core to the windings. The LVDT is a
mutual-inductance device with three coils and a core.
An external a.c. power source energizes the central
coil and the two phase opposite end coils are used as
pickup coils. The output amplitude and phase are
dependent on the relative positions between the two
pickup coils and the power coil. Theoretically there is
a null or zero position between the two end coils,
although in practice this is difficult to obtain perfectly.
• Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-
magnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic
core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the secondary coil
regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced from the
central position as shown in Figure say, more in secondary coil 1 than in
coil 2, then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and
there is a resultant voltage from the coils. If the magnetic core is further
displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion with
the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as low
pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by
using LVDT sensors.
• LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as
an absolute position sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the
constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable. These sensors are
completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms, automated
measurement in machine tools.
• A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the
measurement of rotation. Readers are suggested to prepare a report on
principle of working and construction of RVDT sensor.
• Applications of LVDT sensors
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo
valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz.
tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products
being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals
during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak
detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an
ATM
POSITION SENSORS
• Photo electric sensors
• Hall effect sensors
• Optical encoders
• Photo electric sensors
• Most industrial photo electric sensors use light emitting diodes (LEDs) for
the light source and a phototransistor is used to detect light radiation.
Two types
• Reflective type sensor
Detects the object based on the reflection of light onto a detector from
the target.
• Transmissive-type sensor
It is used to measure the change in light quantity caused by the targets
crossing the optical axis.
Transmissive-type sensor

Reflective type sensor

LED based proximity sensors [1]

• Photo emitting devices such as Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and
photosensitive devices such as photo diodes and photo transistors are
used in combination to work as proximity sensing devices. Above shows
the two typical arrangements of LEDs and photo diodes to detect the
objects breaking the beam and reflecting light.
6. Hall effect sensor

Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

• Figure shows the principle of working of Hall effect sensor. Hall effect sensors work
on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes through a magnetic
field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is deflected from its straight
line path. Thus one side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side
will be of positive charge. This charge separation generates a potential difference
which is the measure of distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying current.

The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level in a
container. The container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at
its top. An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is mounted in the casing. When
the fluid level increases, the magnet will come close to the disc and a potential
difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid to come inside
the container.

These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of
position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary signal conditioning circuitry.
They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their non-contact nature of operation, good
immunity to environment contaminants and ability to sustain in severe conditions
make them quite popular in industrial automation.
1. Tachogenerator

Principle of working of Techogenerator [1]

• Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance. It consists
of an assembly of a toothed wheel and a magnetic circuit as shown in
figure. Toothed wheel is mounted on the shaft or the element of which
angular motion is to be measured. Magnetic circuit comprising of a coil
wound on a ferromagnetic material core. As the wheel rotates, the air
gap between wheel tooth and magnetic core changes which results in
cyclic change in flux linked with the coil. The alternating emf generated is
the measure of angular motion. A pulse shaping signal conditioner is
used to transform the output into a number of pulses which can be
counted by a counter.
Construction and working of AC generator
• An alternating current (AC) generator can also be used as a
tachognerator. It comprises of rotor coil which rotates with the shaft.
Figure 2.4.2 shows the schematic of AC generator. The rotor rotates in
the magnetic field produced by a stationary permanent magnet or
electromagnet. During this process, an alternating emf is produced which
is the measure of the angular velocity of the rotor. In general, these
sensors exhibit nonlinearity error of about ± 0.15% and are employed for
the rotations up to about 10000 rev/min.
Optical encoders
• An optical encoder is a device, that converts motion or any movement into a sequence of
encoded pulsed digital signals by modulating(coding) the continuous optical signals from a
light source received by a photo detector through a slotted disk containing coded patterns
called track.
• By counting or decoding these bits and the pulses can be converted into relative or absolute
position measurements. The number of pulses being proportional to the position of the disk.
• Optical encoder is a suitable transducer for the measurement of angular position.
• Optical encoders are mainly used to measure the angular or linear
displacement,position,velocity,acceleration and direction of movement of rotors.
FOUR MAIN PARTS
• Light source
• Code disk
• Light detector
• Signal conditioner
3. Optical encoders

Construction and working of optical encoder

• Encoders classified into two
1. Linear Encoder
2. Rotary Encoder
a) Incremental Encoder
b) Absolute Encoder
Incremental Encoders

Magnetic
Contact
Optical
• Bit 0
• Bit 1
• Bit 2

• Bit 0

• Bit 1

• Bit 2
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
• Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular
displacement. These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the
rotation of shafts. Figure 2.3.3 shows the construction of an optical encoder. It
comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three
light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. These
sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The
inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home' position of the
disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by
one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of
rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the
pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction
they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on
disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,
• 360°/100=3.6°.
 2. Pyroelectric sensors

Principle of pyroelectricity

These sensors work on the principle of pyroelectricity , which states that a crystal material such as Lithium tantalite
generates charge in response to heat flow . In presence of an electric field, when such a crystal material heats up, its
electrical dipoles line up as shown in figure 2.4.3. This is called as polarization. On cooling, the material retains its
polarization. In absence of electric field, when this polarized material is subjected to infra red irradiation, its polarization
reduces. This phenomenon is the measure of detection of movement of an object.
 Construction and working a Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin film electrodes on opposite faces as
shown in figure 2.4.4. Initially the electrodes are in electrical equilibrium with the polarized material. On incident of infra
red, the material heats up and reduces its polarization. This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and
electrodes. To balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which is calibrated against the
detection of an object or its movement.
Applications of Pyroelectric sensors [2]
Intrusion detector
Optothermal detector
Pollution detector
Position sensor
Solar cell studies
Engine analysis
3. Strain Gauge as force Sensor

Strain gauge based Load cell

Strain gauge based sensors work on the principle of change in electrical resistance. When, a mechanical element
subjects to a tension or a compression the electric resistance of the material changes. This is used to measure the force
acted upon the element. The details regarding the construction of strain gauge transducer are already presented in
Lecture 2 of Module 2.
Figure shows a strain gauge load cell. It comprises of cylindrical tube to which strain gauges are attached. A load
applied on the top collar of the cylinder compress the strain gauge element which changes its electrical resistance.
Generally strain gauges are used to measure forces up to 10 MN. The non-linearity and repeatability errorsof this
transducer are ±0.03% and ±0.02% respectively.
• 4. Fluid pressure
• Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure.
Various types of instruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are
used to monitor the fluid pressure. Specially designed strain gauges doped in
diaphragms are generally used to measure the inlet manifold pressure in
applications such as automobiles. A typical arrangement of strain gauges on a
diaphragm is shown in figure 2.4.6. Application of pressurized fluid displaces the
diaphragm. This displacement is measured by the stain gauges in terms of radial
and/or lateral strains. These strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a
Wheatstone bridge.
• Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has enhanced
sensitivity in comparison with that of diaphragms. Figure 2.4.7 shows a
schematic of a Capsule and a Bellow. A stack of capsules is called as ‘Bellows’.
Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid pressure in terms of change in
resultant voltage across the secondary coils of LVDT. Figure 2.4.8 shows a typical
arrangement of the same.
 A diaphragm

Schematic of Capsule and Bellow Bellow with a LVDT [1]

5. Tactile sensors

Schematic of a tactile sensor [1]

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an object. They are also used in
manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units (VDUs) of CNC machine tools. Figure 2.4.9 shows the
construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a
soft film which transmits the vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer which generates vibrations
due to reverse piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via soft film. These
vibrations cause alternating voltage across the upper PVDF layer. When some pressure is applied on the upper PVDF
layer the vibrations gets affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch
displays.
 6. Piezoelectric sensor

Principle of working of Piezoelectric sensor

Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces such as oscillation,
impact, or high speed compression or tension. It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal materials such as Quartz (Figure
2.4.10). On application of force or pressure these materials get stretched or compressed. During this process, the
charge over the material changes and redistributes. One face of the material becomes positively charged and the
other negatively charged. The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges
have been displaced. The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we can write,
q = kx = SF
where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.
 7. Liquid flow
liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli's principle of fluid flow through a constriction. The
quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured. The fluid flow volume is proportional
to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of the constriction. There are various types of fluid flow
measurement devices being used in manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

7.a Orifice plate:

Orifice Plate [1]

Figure 2.4.11 shows a schematic of Orifice plate device. It has a disc with a hole at its center, through which the fluid flows.
The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the
half the diameter downstream. Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no moving parts. It exhibits
nonlinear behavior and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.
 7.b Turbine meter

Schematic of turbine meter [1]

Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor mounted centrally in the pipe along
which the flow is to be measured. Figure 2.4.12 shows the typical arrangement of the rotor and a magnetic
pick up coil. The fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic pick up coil counts the number of
magnetic pulses generated due to the distortion of magnetic field by the rotor blades. The angular velocity
is proportional to the number of pulses and fluid flow is proportional to angular velocity.
2.3 Displacement, Position and
Proximity
 Displacement sensors are concerned with
the measurement of the amount by which
some object has been moved.
 Position sensors are concerned with the determination of
the position of some object with reference to some
reference point.
 Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are
used to determine when an object has moved to within
some particular critical distance of the sensor.

19
2.3 Displacement, Position and
Proximity
 Following points should be considered in
mind while selecting a displacement,
position or proximity sensor.
1-Size of Displacement.
2-Type of Displacement (linear/angular).
3-Required Resolution.
4-Accuracy Required.
5-Material of the measured object.
6-The Cost.

20
2.3 Displacement, Position and
Proximity
 Displacement and Position sensors are
divided into two basic types;
 Contact sensors in which the measured
object comes into mechanical contact
with the sensor.
 Non-Contacting sensor in which there is
no physical contact between the
measured object and the sensor.

21
2.3.1 Potentiometer
Sensor
 A Potentiometer consists of a resistance
element with a sliding contact which can be
moved over the length of the element.
 Such element can be used for linear or rotary
displacements, the displacement being
converted into potential difference.
 The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular
wire wound track or a film of conductive plastic
over which a rotatable sliding contact can be
rotated.

22
2.3.1 Potentiometer
Sensor

23
2.3.1 Potentiometer
Sensor
 With the constant input voltage Vs, between
terminal 1 and 3, the output voltage Vo between terminal 2
and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage.
This fraction depends upon the ratio of the


resistance R23 between terminal 2 and 3

compared with the total resistance R13
between terminal 1 and 3. i.e.
Vo/Vs = R23/R13

24
2.3.2 Strain-gauged
Element
 The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal
wire, metal foil strip, or a strip of semiconductor
material which is wafer like and can be struck in
to surfaces like a postage stamp.
 When it is subjected to strain, its resistance R
changes, the fractional change in resistance
ΔR/R = Gε
where G, is the constant of proportionality and it is termed as
gauge factor.

25
2.3.2 Strain-gauged
Element

26
2.3.2 Strain-gauged
Element
 Since strain is the ratio (change is length/
original length) then the resistance change
of the strain gauge is a measurement of
the change in length of the element to
which the strain gauge is attached.
 A problem with all strain gauges is that their
resistance not only changes with
strain but also with temperature. So to get
an accurate result various ways of
temperature elimination are used.

27
2.3.3 Capacitive Element
 The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is
given by;
C = (εr.εo. A)/d
where, εr is the relative permittivity of
the dielectric between the plates, εo is
the permittivity of free space, A the
area of overlap between the two plates
and d the plate separation. Capacitive
sensors used to measure linear
displacements are shown in next slide.
28
2.3.3 Capacitive Element
 Capacitor a) is used to measure

displacement by plate separatio n d.

 Capacitor b) is used to
measure
displacement by overlap area A.

Capacitor c) is used to measure
displacement by dielectric motio n.

29
2.3.3 Capacitive Element

For the displacement changing the
plate separation, if the separation d is
increased by displacement x then the
capacitance becomes;
C- ΔC = (εr.εo. A)/(d+x)
Change in capacitance as a fraction of
the initial capacitance is given by;
ΔC/C = - (x/d)/[1+(x/d)]

30
2.3.4 Differential
Transformers
 The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT) consists of three coils symmetrically
spaced along an insulated tube.
 The central coil is the primary coil and the other
two are identical secondary coils which are
connected in series in such away that their
outputs oppose each other.

A magnetic core is moved through the central
tube as a result of the displacement being
monitored.

31
2.3.4 Differential
Transformers
 When there is an
alternating voltage input
to the primary coil, alterna ting
e.m.fs are induced in the secondary coil.
 With the magnetic core central, the amount of
magnetic material in each of the secondary
coils is the same.
 But when the core is displaced from the
central position there is a greater amount of
magnetic core in one coil than the other, e.g.
more in secondary coil2 than coil 1.

32
2.3.4 Differential
Transformers
 The result is that a greater e.m.f is induced
in one coil than the other. There is then a net output
from the two coils.
 Since a greater displacement means even more core in
one coil than the other, the
output, the difference between the two
e.m.fs increases the greater the
displacement being monitored.

33
2.3.4 Differential
Transformers
 LVDTs have operating ranges from about ±2mm to
±400mm with non-linearity errors of about ±0.25%.
 LVDTs are very widely used as primary transducers for monitoring
displacements. The free end of the core may be spring loaded for
contact with the surface being monitored, or threaded for mechanical
connection.
They are also used as secondary transducers in the measurement of
 force, weight and pressure; these

variables are transformed in to displacements

which can be monitored by LVDT’s.

34
2.3.5 Eddy Current Proximity
Sensor
 If a coil is supplied with an alternating
current, an alternating magnetic field is produced. If there
is a metal object in close proximity to this alternating
magnetic field, then eddy currents are induced in it.
The eddy currents themselves produce a magnetic field.
 This distorts the magnetic field responsible for their
production.

35
2.3.5 Eddy Current Proximity
Sensors
 As a result, the impedance of the coil
changes and so the amplitude of the alternating current.
At some preset level, this change can be used to trigger a
switch.
 This type of sensor is used for detection of non-magnetic
but conductive materials. They are inexpensive, small in
size, highly reliable and are very sensitive to small
displacements.

36
2.3.6 Inductive proximity
Switch

This consists of a coil wound round
a core. When the end of the coil is
close to a metal object its
inductance changes. This change
can be used to trigger a switch.

It is used for detection of metal objects
and is best with ferrous metals.

37
2.3.8 Pneumatic Sensors
 Pneumatic sensors involve the use of
compressed air, displacement or the
proximity of an object being transformed in
to a change in air pressure.
 Low pressure air is allowed to escape
through a port in the front of the sensor.
This escaping air in the absence of any
close by object, escapes and in doing so
also reduces the pressure in the nearby
sensor output port.

38
 2.3.8 Pneumatic Sensors

 Bu t if there is a close by object, the air cannot s cape and the o readily
es result is that the pressure incre ases in the
sensor output port. The output pressure from the sensor thus depends on the
proximity of objects.
 Typically 3-12mm displacements can be measured by this
sensor.

39
2.3.9 proximity Switches
 There are many forms of switches which are
activated by the presence of an object, to give
an output to sensor which is either on or off.
 Microswitch is a small electrical switch which requires
physical contact and a small operating force to close the
contacts.
 On a conveyor belt presence of an item is determined by
the weight on the belt.
 Lever operated, Roller Operated and Cam Operated switches
are examples of Proximity Microswitches.

40
2.3.9 Proximity Switches
 Reed Switch consists of two magnetic switch
contacts sealed in a glass tube.
 When a magnet is brought close to the switch,
the magnetic reeds are attracted to each other
and close the switch contacts.

41
2.3.9 Proximity Switches

Photosensitive devices can be used to detect

the presence of an opaque object by it
breaking a beam of light, or infrared radiation,
falling on
such a device or by detecti ng
the light reflected back by
the object.

42
2.3.10 Hall Effect Sensors

43
 Encoders
An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm or person that converts information
from one format or code to another, for the purposes of standardization, speed, secrecy, security, or saving space

A rotary or linear encoder concerts rotary or linear motion to an electronic signal.

Incremental Encoders

Magnetic
Contact
Optical
Incremental Encoders

In a CNC system BLU is 0.005 mm. If a pulse generating

encoder with mean track diameter of 100 mm is mounted
on the driving screw is used for motion measurement,
what is width of transparent/opaque segments at mean
track ?
Digital Readout (DRO)

7-segment display
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Limit Switch
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
RESOLVERS AND
SYNCHROS
• A resolver is a type of rotary electrical transformer used for measuring
degrees of rotation
• The most common type of resolver is the brushless transmitter resolver.
• On the outside, this type of resolver may look like a small electrical
motor having a stator and rotor.
• On the inside, the configuration of the wire windings makes it different.
• The stator portion of the resolver houses three windings: an exciter winding
and two two-phase windings (usually labeled "x" and "y") (case of a brushless
resolver).
• The exciter winding is located on the top; it is in fact a coil of a turning
(rotary) transformer. This transformer induces current in the rotor without a
direct electrical connection, thus there are no wires to the rotor limiting its
rotation and no need for brushes.
• The two other windings are on the bottom, wound on a lamination. They are
configured at 90 degrees from each other.
• The rotor houses a coil, which is the secondary winding of the turning
transformer, and a separate primary winding in a lamination, exciting the
two two-phase windings on the stator.
• Resolvers can perform very accurate analog conversion from polar to
rectangular coordinates. Shaft angle is the polar angle, and excitation voltage
is the magnitude.
• The outputs are the [x] and [y] components.
• Resolvers with four-lead rotors can rotate [x] and [y] coordinates, with the
shaft position giving the desired rotation angle.
Types of resolver
• Receiver resolvers
• Differential resolvers
 Synchros
• In function, the synchro is an electromechanical transducer.
• A mechanical input such as a shaft rotation is converted to a unique set of
output voltages, or a set of input voltages is used to turn a synchro rotor to
a desired position.
The complete circle represents the rotor.
The solid bars represent the cores of the windings next to them. Power to the rotor is connected by slip
rings and brushes, represented by the circles at the ends of the rotor winding.
The rotor induces equal voltages in the 120° and 240° windings, and no voltage in the 0° winding. [Vex] does
not necessarily need to be connected to the common lead of the stator star windings.
• A synchro is, in effect, a transformer whose primary-to-secondary coupling
may be varied by physically changing the relative orientation of the two
windings. Synchros are often used for measuring the angle of a rotating
machine such as an antenna platform. In its general physical construction, it
is much like an electric motor.
• The primary winding of the transformer, fixed to the rotor, is excited by
an alternating current, which by electromagnetic induction, causes currents
to flow in three Y-connected secondary windings fixed at 120 degrees to each
other on the stator.
• The relative magnitudes of secondary currents are measured and used to
determine the angle of the rotor relative to the stator, or the currents can be
used to directly drive a receiver synchro that will rotate in unison with the
synchro transmitter.
Synchro --- Eight functional categories

• Torque Transmitter (TX)

• Control Transmitter (CX)
• Torque Differential Transmitter (TDX)
• Control Differential Transmitter (CDX)
• Torque Receiver (TR)
• Torque Differential Receiver (TDR)
• Control Transformer (CT)
• Torque Receiver-Transmitter (TRX)
Acoustic emission sensor
• Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic
(elastic) waves in solids that occurs when a material undergoes
irreversible changes in its internal structure, for example as a result of
crack formation or plastic deformation due to aging, temperature
gradients or external mechanical forces. In particular, AE is occurring
during the processes of mechanical loading of materials and
structures accompanied by structural changes that generate local
sources of elastic waves.
Acoustic emission
• AE sensors are used in a wide range of fields, including the inspection of
manufactured products, monitoring the safety of structures, and the
development of new materials.
• Acoustic Emission (AE) is the sound emitted as an elastic wave by a solid
when it is deformed or struck. The use of AE sensors to detect these
elastic waves and to non-destructively test on materials is called the AE
method.
Quite some time before failure occurs, tiny deformations and minute
cracks will appear and spread in materials. By picking up the trends in AE,
the AE method can detect and predict flaws and failures in materials and
structures.
• Typical non-destructive testing methods
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Radiographic Testing (RT)
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)
 The AE method is used to detect frequencies in the ultrasonic range (several
tens of kHz to several MHz). Although AE resembles ultrasonic testing, the
AE method is different from other non-destructive testing methods in that it
detects the dynamic energy that the flaws in the material themselves emit.
The AE method offers the following advantages.
 Can observe the progress of plastic deformation and microscopic collapse in
real time.
 Can locate a flaw by using several AE sensors.
 Can diagnose facilities while they are in operation
Types of AE sensors
AE sensors are broadly classified into two types:
• Resonance models (narrow-band) that are highly sensitive at a
specific frequency.
• Wide bandwidth models that possess a constant sensitivity across a
wide band of frequencies.
The choice of model depends on the goal of the application.
• Resonance model
The mechanical resonance of the detector element is used to obtain high
sensitivity. Generally, these types of sensors have resonant frequencies in
the range of 60 kHz to 1 MHz .
• AE sensors having a piezoelectric accelerometer design are used if lower
resonance characteristics are required.
• Wide bandwidth model
A damper is bonded on top of the detector element to suppress the
resonance.
The application of AE sensors
• AE sensors can pick up warning signals from manufactured products
that human senses cannot detect.
• AE sensors have a wide range of applications, from quality control
inspections of manufactured goods, to safety inspections of large
structures.
 Product testing
a) Detecting event of "head touch" in magnetic discs

AE sensors are used in the quality control management of magnetic

discs. The sensors can detect the sounds of tiny prominences on a
rapidly spinning magnetic disc striking the magnetic head.
b) Detection of abnormal sounds in small electric motors
The passing or failure of the product can be decided based on the level of abnormal
sounds coming from motors and fans.
c) Inspection of the bonding of laminated boards

An AE sensor can tell by the acoustic emissions generated when a load is applied to a laminated board whether there is poor bonding between
laminations or not.
d) Detection of sub-standard pipe welds

When pipes, etc., are improperly welded, the substandard welding can be detected by
the AE that are generated.
e) Detection of tiny hole in drum cans

The passing or failure of the drum can be decided by leak detection when
air is pumped into the drum.
• Tool monitoring
• Facility diagnosis
• Material testing / other applications
• Diagnosis of the integrity of large structures
• Safety monitoring in civil engineering projects
• The term vibration relates with the displacement, velocity and
acceleration. So vibrations can be measured by using the transducers
which are sensitive to displacement, velocity and acceleration.
• A vibration is measured by its frequency and amplitude.
• Every vibrating body/element has mass and frequency of vibration is a
function of this mass.
• The amplitude of vibration is a function of this mass.
An accelerometer is a vibration measuring device which uses a
piezoresistive or capacitive effect for measurement.
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