Thinking & Problem Solving

Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

 Thinking
Thinking or cognition refers to a process that involves
knowing, understanding, remembering and
communicating.

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 Organization in Thinking
Concepts / Schemas
Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of
chairs, but their common features define the concept of chair.

Prototype
The typical or best example of the concept that
demonstrates the schema (list of characteristics).

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Chair Schema Characteristics?
• Furniture
• Seat
• Four Legs
• Back
• Arms
• Sits one person
• Cushioned
• Made of wood
Schema Hierarchies
We organize
schema into
category
hierarchies.
Prototypes
A prototype is the BEST example or
cognitive representation of something
within a certain schema.

Dog
 Creativity

1. Original thought (it can’t just be an obvious extension of

another’s work)
2. That is functional / valuable

=> the process of producing something

novel yet worthwhile
 Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

● Divergent Thinking -
Proposing many possible
solutions in an attempt to
suggest one that may work.
● Convergent thinking -
bringing together different
ideas from different
participants or fields to
determine a single best
solution to a problem.
 Metacognition

● Thinking about your own thinking

● It can improve the application of knowledge, skills, and character
qualities in realms beyond the immediate context in which they
were learned. This can result in the transfer of competencies across
disciplines—important for students preparing for real-life situations
where clear-cut divisions of disciplines fall away and one must
select competencies from the entire gamut of their experience to
effectively apply them to the challenges at hand.
 Problem Solving
There are three ways to solve problems.

Algorithms
Methodical, logical
rule or procedure that
guarantees solving a
particular problem.

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 Problem Solving
There are t2 or 3 ways to solve problems.

Algorithms Heuristics
Methodical, logical Are simple thinking
rule or procedure that strategies that often
guarantees solving a allows us to make
particular problem. judgments and solve
problems efficiently.

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Possible Solution Strategies
• Algorithms
– Step-by-step methods that guarantees a solution
– Methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a
particular problem.
– Math problems are an example of the type best solved using an
algorithm
• Heuristics
– Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem, but do not
guarantee a solution.
– They are quicker than algorithms
Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming,
exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.

SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,208 possibilities.
Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple
principles to arrive at solutions to problems.

SPLOYOCHYG
PS
PSYCHOLOG S
P L O Y O C H G
Y Y
Heuristic at work: Y’s usually go at the end of a word.
 Using & Misusing
Heuristics
Two kinds of heuristics have been identified by cognitive
psychologists. Representative and availability
heuristics. While heuristics often help us solve
problems, they can also bias our judgment.

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 Representativeness Heuristics
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how
well they seem to represent, or match a particular
prototype….it allows people to make quick judgments.
▧ If you were to meet a man, dressed in dress slacks and a
sweater, who is small in stature, wears glasses, is soft-spoken
and somewhat shy and were then asked if this man were a
librarian or a construction worker…what would you say?

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 Availability Heuristics
Cognitive shortcut in which the probability of an event is
determined by how easily the event can be brought to mind.
You choose the alternative that is most mentally “available”.
▧ People are usually more afraid of dying in a plane crash than
in an auto accident, despite contrary evidence…the reason is
that plane crashes receive much more publicity, so are more
readily brought to mind

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 Problem Solving
There are 2 or 3 ways to solve problems.

Algorithms Heuristics Insight

Methodical, logical Are simple thinking Involves sudden novel
rule or procedure that strategies that often realization of a
guarantees solving a allows us to make solution to a problem.
particular problem. judgments and solve Based on prior
problems efficiently. experience and initial
trial-and-error to gain
insight.

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 Insight

Insight occurs when a solution to a problem presents itself

quickly and without warning.
It is the sudden discovery of the correct solution following
incorrect attempts based on trial and error.
Obstacles to Problem Solving
Sometimes our thinking can get in our way of solving
problems.

Fixation: Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

Impediment to problem solving.

There are 2 types.

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 Fixation
Mental Set
▧ Tendency for old patterns of
problem solving to persist
and make it impossible for
us to see new ways to solve
the problem.
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Functional
Fixedness
▧ Tendency to think of only
the familiar or typical
functions for objects.
Obstacles to Problem Solving
Another way our thinking can hinder problem solving is
with bias.

Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that

confirms a personal bias.
You believe…your boyfriend is faithful…so rather than notice that he is often receiving text
messagesWefrom
seek evidence
other girls and to
isn’tsupport ideas
as available for and
datestend
as he to
oncedismiss
was, youevidence that
pay attention is
to the
fact that he calls you
contrary onceway
to our a day of
(even if it is for–asometimes
thinking few moments)we andconsciously
always brings you
seekflowers
this
when he is able to take you out on a date.
evidence, other times its subconscious.

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 Bias
Other examples of bias hindering problem solving…

Belief Bias: The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to

distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid
conclusions.

IfIfyou
youbelieve,
believebased
that aon
certain
your way
experience
of taking
when
notes
you(i.e.
were
Cornell)
sick asisathe
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to learn,
Vaporyou
Rubmayhas
discount
healing qualities
someone’s to knowledge
your stuffy when
nose, they
then haven’t
when you taken
observe
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the sameelse’s
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have,
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make
say the
in
research,
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you areconclusion
likely to interpret
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learning
data inisn’t
favorasofsolid
it’s healing
as yours.powers.

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 Bias
Other examples of bias hindering problem solving…

Belief Perseverance: Our tendency to cling to our beliefs in

the face of contrary evidence.

You
Belief
believe
with body
you are
image
a great
– your
friend.
friend
Nobelieves
matter how
she ismany
fat. friends
No matteryouhow
losemuch
due toweight
your arrogance
she loses or
lack of compassion
howand
many empathy,
dress sizes
you she’s
still believe
down, she
you still
are rock
sees herself
solid atas
this
fat.friendship thing.

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 How are these different?

Confirmation bias… Belief bias… Belief perseverance…

You are seeking Your belief alters the way Contradicting evidence is
evidence, and you only you make conclusions, obvious, and you even
see evidence that either accepting illogical acknowledge it, but you
supports your bias conclusions because it still stick to your original
(consciously ignore or matches your belief or belief.
don’t even see rejecting logical
contradicting evidence). conclusions because it
contradicts your belief.

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 Other Obstacles to Problem Solving
Overconfidence - a tendency to overestimate the
accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments.
▧ while it poses some problems for making decisions is actually
associated with happiness and making tough decisions easier
as thinking everything will work out in the end can keep us
from worrying.
▧ Think of the last time you made a goal – you said you would
complete by a certain date, how long did it actually take you
(think of a recent school project maybe).

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 Other Obstacles to Problem Solving
Exaggerated Fear - Opposed to overconfidence is our
tendency for exaggerated fear about how things may
happen. Such fears may be ill-founded.
▧ Think of our responses after major tragedy… i.e. Air
travel after 9/11 declined due to fear

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 Framing Decisions
Framing - How an issue is presented can significantly
affect decisions and judgments.
▧ Presenting (or framing) the exact same issue in two different
ways can produce two very different results…the more
positive you make it sound, the more people will respond to it.
▧ What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or
75% lean?
▧ A surgery – 90% success or 10% failure

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 How is Framing Different from Priming?

▧ Framing is how you present the information (or ask

the question) itself to alter responses.
▧ Priming is presenting a stimulus that alters the way
they respond to the information (or question) that
comes after that stimulus.

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