NUTRITION

SECTION B
Nutrition
1.1 describe the major nutrients and their sources;
1.2 state the function and the main sources of vitamin A, B1, C, D and the minerals calcium and
iron;
1.3. state the cause, symptoms and treatment of deficiency diseases;
1.4.classify vitamins as fat or water-soluble;
1.5 perform tests to distinguish among food nutrients
1.6 state the functions of water in the body;
1.7 state the role of dietary fibre in the body;
1.8 describe the causes and effects of constipation and diarrhoea;
1.9 explain what is meant by a balanced diet;
1.10. explain the effects of malnutrition on the human body;
1.11 determine Body Mass Index (BMI);
DIET
• The quantity and quality of the different
types of food that you eat is referred to as
your diet.
• The foods that you eat are made of
nutrients. A nutrient is a type of substance
found in our food.
NUTRIENTS • There are two types of nutrients:

a. Macronutrients: the food

substances that you eat in relatively
large amounts, (e.g. fats, proteins
and carbohydrates)
b. Micronutrients are the food
substances you eat in small
quantities, e.g. vitamins and mineral
salts.
It is important to eat a balanced diet that relates to our needs. A
balanced diet must include:

• enough energy for our needs – our energy is provided by

macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats and proteins)
• essential amino acids, from proteins
• essential fatty acids, from fats
• micronutrients – vitamins and minerals
• water to replace the water lost in urine, sweat, breath and faeces
• Fibre for proper functioning of the digestive system in moving found
from the mouth to the anus.
NUTRIENTS Description SOURCES
Reducing Sugars: Reducing sugars have essential roles in providing energy.

MAJOR NUTRIENTS
Energy Source:
Cellular Respiration:

Non Reducing Sugars: Energy Storage. Eg sucrose in plants.

Transport: Sucrose transports carbohydrates in plants.

Lipids: Provide a concentrated source of energy, support cell structure, and are
necessary for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).

Proteins: Essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues. Proteins
also play a role in enzyme and hormone production.

Carbohydrates: Provide energy, particularly for the brain and muscles.

Vitamins Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for various
physiological functions in the body. They play crucial roles in metabolism,
growth, and overall health.
NUTRIENTS Description SOURCES

Reducing Sugars: Reducing sugars have essential roles in providing energy Fruits, Honey, and some vegetables (e.g.
MAJOR NUTRIENTS
and Cellular Respiration: beets)

Non Reducing Sugars: Energy Storage. Eg sucrose in plants. Some fruits and vegetable(sweet potatoes),
Transport: Sucrose transports carbohydrates in plants. maple syrup, commercial honey, table
sugar, nectar.

Lipids: Provide a concentrated source of energy, support cell Oils, butter, nuts, seeds, avocados, fatty
structure, and are necessary for the absorption of fat- fish, and some dairy products.
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).

Proteins: Essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body Meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, eggs,
tissues. Proteins also play a role in enzyme and hormone legumes, nuts, and seeds
production.

Carbohydrates: Provide energy, particularly for the brain and muscles. Mainly found in grains, fruits, vegetables,
and legumes.
Vitamins Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for Vit A: carrots
various physiological functions in the body. They play Vit B: poultry
crucial roles in metabolism, growth, and overall health. Vit C: Oranges
Vit K: Leafy green vegetables.
VITAMIN B
BERIBERI
DISEASE
MINERALS
BIOLOGICAL
TESTS
TEST FOR
STARCH
(IODINE
TEST)
TEST FOR LIPIDS
(EMULSION TEST)
TEST FOR PROTEINS
(Biuret Test)
 TEST FOR
REDUCING
SUGARS
(BENEDICT’S
TEST)
 TEST FOR
NON-
REDUCING
SUGARS
(BENEDICT’S
TEST)
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are the sugars and starches in
our diet. They are made from the elements
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. (C,H,O)

• The simplest carbohydrates are

monosaccharides (or single sugars) such as
glucose. (soluble)
• Monosaccharides can be joined into pairs to
form disaccharides. (less soluble)
• They can also be joined to form
polysaccharides that are long branched or
unbranched chains. (insoluble)
Macronutrient Chemical elements Rich food Functions in humans Physical Properties
present source
Protein C, H, O and N to form Meat,fish, 1 Growth and repair Globular proteins
amino eggs, 2 Enzymes (soluble
acids pulses 3 Some hormones in water
4 Transport Fibrous proteins (e.g.
5 Protection keratin,
collagen) insoluble in
water

Carbohydrate: C, H and O with the Sugar, biscuit, Energy source Monosaccharides and
Monosaccharides, ratio of H cakes. bread 2 Energy storage e.g. disaccharides are
disaccharides, to O being 2 to 1; they glycogen (not starch which soluble in water
polysaccharides form is the energy store in plants) Polysaccharides are
saccharides (sugars insoluble
Fat (lipid) C, H and O to form Butter, oil 1 Energy source Insoluble in water
glycerol and 2 Insulation
fatty acids 3 Protection against knocks
Fewer oxygen atoms to 4 Part of cell membrane
hydrogen atoms than in 5 Solvent for vitamins A and D
carbohydrates and
proteins
 Roles of minerals in the body
mineral sources Function Deficiency

Iron Liver, eggs, green production of Anaemia – less haemoglobin in red

vegetables, e.g. haemoglobin in red blood cells
spinach, blood cells
callaloo/dasheen bush
iodine Water, table salt Production of thyroxine Reduction in metabolic rate, causes
which controls sluggishness in adults; cretinism in the
the metabolic rate young

calcium Cheese,milk, water, Healthy bones & Weak bones, poor blood clotting.
tinned tuna/salmon teeth,blood clotting,
musclecontraction
VITAMINS SOURCE FUNCTION DEFICIENCY

A (fat soluble) Milk, butter, liver Manufacture of rhodopsin in the Nightblindness

rods in the eye (

B (Water soluble) Eggs, vegetables Many uses, particularly in Many, e.g. nervous and
respiration muscle systems are less
efcient

C (Water Soluble) Fruit eg oranges Healing of wounds, formation of collagen in Scurvy – bleeding gums,
many places in the body, e.g. in skin and gums; teeth fall
stimulates uptake of iron from the gut out; can lead to anaemia

D (fat soluble) Liver, butter, cheese Stimulates absorption of calcium and phosphate Rickets: weakened bones
from food, therefore important in bone
formation
Functions of Water
in the Body
• The human body contains of 70%water.
• This water is important as it helps to
regulate the body’s temperature.
• Transport of digested food, oxygen, and
waste also needs water.
• Water also helps keep our muscles and
joints running smoothly.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

 Similar to every material in the world, water exists in three states, water
(liquid), water vapor (gas), ice (solid)

. But unlike any other material on Earth, the density of water (across all states)

Functions is highest when it is a liquid, thus ice floats on top of water, allowing the
colorful ecology to exist underwater in cold places.

of Water in
the Body
Around 71% of the Earth's surface is covered with water, of which the ocean
takes up 96.5%.

Water on Earth goes through a cycle: water reaches the Earth as rain and snow
and passes through rivers and lakes, before arriving at the ocean. The water is
then evaporated turning into water vapor and travels up to the sky as clouds.
When water vapor accumulates, it eventually falls onto the Earth again thus
repeating the cycle.
Properties of
Water
1. Water is often referred to as the
universal solvent because of its ability
to dissolve a wide variety of substances,
including salts, sugars, acids, and gases.
This property is crucial for biological
and chemical processes.
2. Polarity: Water is a polar molecule,
meaning it has a partial positive charge
on one end (hydrogen) and a partial
negative charge on the other end
(oxygen) due to the unequal sharing of
electrons. This gives water the ability to
dissolve a wide range of substances.
.
3. High Specific Heat: Water has a high
specific heat capacity, which means it
can absorb and retain a significant
amount of heat energy without a large
change in temperature. This property
helps regulate Earth's temperature and
stabilizes the temperature of living
organisms

e.g. The fish in the pond are happy

because the specific heat of the water in
the pond water means the temperature of
the water will stay relatively the same
from day to night
4. High Heat of Vaporization: Water has a
high heat of vaporization, meaning it requires
a substantial amount of heat to change from a
liquid to a gas. This property contributes to
the cooling effect of sweating in organisms
and helps moderate temperatures on Earth.

5. High Surface Tension: Water exhibits a

high surface tension due to the cohesive forces
between water molecules. This property
allows certain objects, like small insects, to
float on the surface of water and is essential
for capillary action in plants.
6. Density: Water is densest at 4 degrees
Celsius, and its density decreases both above
and below this temperature. This anomaly
causes ice to float on water, which is
significant for aquatic ecosystems as it
insulates the water below, allowing life to
survive during freezing conditions.
 Dietary Fiber
• Dietary fiber, often referred to as roughage or bulk, is a
type of carbohydrate found in plant-based foods that the
human body cannot digest or absorb.
• Instead of being broken down into nutrients, fiber passes
relatively intact through the digestive system and has
several important health benefits.
• There are two main types of dietary fiber: soluble and
insoluble.
Soluble Fiber vs Insoluble Fiber
SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE

Dissolves in water Does not dissolve in

water

Promotes satiety Promotes Laxation

Supports gut flora Supports intestinal

Health

Helps food move Creates bulk in your

through the gut stool

Can be found in apples, Found in whole wheat,

beans, nuts, oatmeal, leafy greens, quinoa,
sweet potato, lentils brown rice and seeds.
Causes and Effects
of Constipation • Constipation is difficulty in passing faeces.
• People who are constipated have difficulty with
bowel movements, may suffer from pain and swelling
in the abdomen, and vomit.
• They need to have more dietary fibre in their meals.
Examples of foods rich in fibre include vegetables,
fruit and bran. This will encourage more peristalsis,
so preventing the condition.
• Drinking more water will also help; drugs known as
laxatives may help to cure the problem for some
people.
Causes and Effects
• Diarrhoea is a condition in which a
of Diarrhoea; person is continually passing faeces in
a liquid form.
• The body can become dehydrated
quickly as a result of the loss of water
in the faeces.
• In serious cases it is treated with oral
rehydration. If this is not effective, a
saline drip may be needed, by which
fluid is put directly into the
bloodstream.
Food poisoning is a very common cause of
diarrhoea
. The chances of food poisoning can be virtually eliminated by:
1. ensuring that those involved in the preparation of food regularly wash their
hands
2. Keeping flies, cockroaches, rodents and other animals away from food
3. keeping raw meat separate from cooked meat to prevent raw meat from cross-
infecting cooked meat.
4. cleaning working surfaces and kitchen equipment thoroughly before and
after use
5. cooking meats and meat products thoroughly
6. thawing frozen food thoroughly before cooking excluding known carriers
of food poisoning microorganisms from the food industry.
Body Mass
Index (BMI)
• BMI is used to determine the relative weight and
nutritional status of individuals whether obese,
healthy or underweight.

• BMI = Body mass (in kilograms)/Height (in metres)2

Effects of
malnutrition on the
human body;
• Malnutrition is the result of a lack of balance
in the diet. This does not simply mean that
there are nutrients missing from the diet, the
term covers both overeating and undereating.
• An unbalanced diet can be one with far too
much energy or too much fat. There are many
serious consequences for health from
malnutrition.
• For an adult, consuming less than 5000 kJ
per day eventually leads to death by
starvation.
Obesity
• Too high an energy intake due to excess carbohydrate and animal
fat can cause us to put on weight.
• Someone who is 20% above their recommended weight for his
or her height or who has a body mass index (BMI) greater than
30 is said to be obese.
Types of Teeth
• We have two sets of teeth in our lifetime:
1. milk (deciduous) teeth in childhood
2. permanent teeth that replace the milk teeth
from the age of about six years onwards.

The human adult dentition is composed of four

types of teeth
• incisors – chisel-like for biting
• canines – pointed, with no particular function in
humans although they help the incisors bite into
food
• premolars – cheek teeth, ridged for grinding
• molars – cheek teeth, ridged for grinding.
IMPORTANCE
OF TEETH IN
THE PROCESS
OF
DIGESTION;
structure and function of a typical tooth
relate the structures of the tooth
to their functions;
• Enamel: Enamel covers the crown or the outside of
the tooth and protects it from physical and chemical
injuries.
• Dentin: Dentin forms the main part of dental tissues.
Dentin is a similar structure to bone. The cells that
form dentin are odontoblast cells, similar to
osteoblast cells in bone. Unlike bones, dentin does
not have blood vessels.
• Dental pulp: The center of the tooth contains dental
pulp, which consists of loose tissues, including
nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. The
dental pulp attacks the bacteria with antibacterial,
immune, and inflammatory responses. This may
cause the body to reject and fight off the bacterial
infection.
• Plaque is a mixture of saliva, food and
bacteria which forms naturally on the teeth.
• Bacteria in the plaque produce acids and
toxins (poisons) from the food, particularly
if the food is sugary.
• Dental caries are caused by the acid
dissolving the enamel and the dentine of
the tooth. This leads to a cavity in the
tooth, which may become infected, leading
to toothache.
Guidelines for the care of teeth

1. Brush teeth and gums in the proper way, twice a day.

Use a fluoride toothpaste and good quality toothbrush when brushing.
2. Use dental floss and an interdental brush once a day.
Use an antibacterial mouthwash after brushing and flossing.
3. Avoid eating sugary and starchy foods and drinking sugary drinks,
especially between meals and before going to bed.
4. Visit a dentist regularly for a checkup and cleaning.
outline guidelines for the care of the teeth
The chemical
digestion of food

• During chemical digestion the large food

molecules are broken down into small
molecules by hydrolysis.
• During hydrolysis, the bonds within the
large food molecules are broken down by
the addition of water molecules.
• Chemical digestion is catalysed (speeded
up) by digestive enzymes
STRUCTURE &
FUNCTION OF
THE HUMAN
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 Enzymes
• Enzymes are biological catalysts produced by all living cells. They
speed up chemical reactions occurring in living
organisms without being changed themselves.
• Enzymes are proteins that living cells produce from
amino acids obtained from the diet. Without enzymes,
chemical reactionns would occur too slowly to maintain
life.

• E.g. Amylase

Amylase
Starch------------------------------- Maltose
Properties of enzymes
1. Enzymes are specific, i.e. each type of enzyme catalyses only one type of
reaction.
2. Enzymes work best at a particular temperature known as the optimum
temperature. This is about 37 degrees for human enzymes
3. High temperatures denature enzymes, i.e. the shape of the enzyme
molecules changes so that they
4. are inactivated. Enzymes start to be denatured at about 40 oC to 45 degrees.
5. Enzymes work best at a particular pH known as the optimum pH. This is
about pH 7 for most enzymes.
6. Extremes of acidity or alkalinity denature most enzymes.
7. The action of enzymes is inhibited by certain poisons, e.g. arsenic and
cyanide
Categories of Digestive Enzymes
Category Food molecule hydrolysed Products of hydrolysis

Carbohydrate Polysaccharide & Disaccharide Monosaccharide

Proteases Proteins Amino acids

Lipses Lipids Fatty acids & glycerol

 Chemical Digestion Summary
Organ Digestive Source Main Components Function of the components
Juice
Mouth Saliva (Ph 7- Salivary 1. Water & mucus 1. Moisten and lubricate the food allowing tasting and
8) Glands easy swallowing.
2. Begins to digest:
2. Salivary amylase starch maltose
(a disaccharide)
Stomach Gastric Juice Cells in the 1. Hydrochloric acid Maintains an optimum pH of 1–2 for pepsin and rennin,
(pH 1-2) stomach wall and kills bacteria.
• Produced in infants to clot soluble protein in milk so
2. Rennin the protein is retained in the stomach.
• Begins to digest: protein peptides (shorter chains of
amino acids)
3. Pepsin
Small Bile (pH 7-8) Cells in the 1. Bile pigments e.g. Excretory products from the breakdown of haemoglobin
Intestine liver. Stored bilirubin in the liver. Have no function in
in the gall digestion.
bladder • Emulsify lipids, i.e. break large lipid droplets into
2. Organic bile salts. smaller droplets increasing their surface
area for digestion.
 Chemical Digestion Summary
Organ Digestive Source Main Components Function of the components
Juice

Small Pancreatic Cells in the 1. Pancreatic amylase* • Continues to digest:

Intestine juice.(pH 7- pancreas. It 2. Trypsin* starch maltose
8) enters the 3. Pancreatic lipase* • Continues to digest:
duodenum protein peptides
via the • Digests:
pancreatic lipids fatty acids and glycerol
duct.

Intestinal Cells in the 1. Maltase* • Digests:

juice (Ph 7-8) walls of 2. Sucrase* maltose glucose
the small 3. Lactase* • Digests:
intestine. 4. Peptidase* (erepsin) sucrose glucose and fructose
• Digests:
lactose glucose and galactose
• Digests:
peptides amino acids
 Movement of food through the alimentary canal
• Food is moved through the esophagus and the rest of the alimentary
canal by a process known as peristalsis.
Circular muscles- in the walls of the esophagus
and intestines.

The
Mechanism Circular muscles contract behind the bolus, squeezing it along

of Peristalsis. Bolus of food

Circular muscles relax around and in front of the bolus.

• ABSORPTION
Absorption is the process by which the soluble food molecules, produced in digestion, move
into the body fluids and body cells. Absorption occurs in the small intestine and colon.

• ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

The products of digestion are absorbed through the lining of the small intestine, mainly the
ileum,
and into the blood capillaries and lacteals (lymph capillaries) in its walls.
Substances absorbed include monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins,
minerals and water.
Water is absorbed by osmosis; the other substances are absorbed by both diffusion and active
transport.
The ileum is very long, about 5 m in an adult, and its inner surface has thousands of finger-like
projections called villi (singular villus); both features help to give it a very large surface area for
absorption.
The wall of each villus, known as the epithelium, is only one cell thick and the epithelial cells
have tiny projections called microvilli. Each villus has a network of blood capillaries and a
lacteal (lymph capillary) inside.
• EGESTION
Egestion is the process by which undigested food material is removed from the body.

• ASSIMILATION
Assimilation is the process by which the body uses the soluble food molecules absorbed after digestion.

Amino acids:
1. transported in the hepatic portal vein to the liver.
2. Some molecules pastoral liver and go to all body cells where they are made into new proteins for growth and repair
and globular proteins example enzymes and fibrous proteins example collagen in the skin.
3. Excess amino acids deaminated in the liver to form ammonia which is converted into less toxic substance urea.

Glucose:
4. Transported in the hepatic portal vein to the liver
5. some passes through the liver and the travels to all cells for use in respiration.
6. Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and in muscles.

Fatty acids:
7. Converts it into triglycerides.
8. Absorbed into the lacteal which is part of the lymph system by diffusion eventually the strains into the bloodstream.
9. Triglycerides are stored around the vital organs for insulation and protection..
The stomach
• The stomach is a highly with a thicker ring of muscle
at the end where it joins the small intestine.
• The stomachs stores food for approximately 3 to 4
hours.
• By churning action where the food is made into semi
solid mass known as chime.
• Cells in the wall of the stomach secrete hydrochloric
acid (HCl) and the protease pepsin.
• Hydrochloric acid is secreted to protect us against
infection via our food and it kills most of the bacteria
we have ingested.
• When the food is mixed with the acid secreted by the
stomach its pH decreases to about 1.5. At this point
any salivary amylase in the food stops working.
Duodenum
• Periodically the pyloric sphincter muscle relaxes and chime releases into the duodenum.
• The summer does not release all its contents at once as it is very acidic and would damage the
walls of the duodenum.
• The food entering the duodenum it's mixed with bile which is secreted by the liver and the
pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
• File is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
• The entry of food is the stimulus for the release of bile from the gallbladder.
• File flows down the bile duck to mix with pancreatic juice in the pancreatic duct.
• Bile and pancreatic juice are both alkaline fluids that neutralize the stomach acid and provide
alkaline pH in the small intestine (pH 8)
BILE
• Bile contains substances called bile salts that are emulsifiers.
• These substances changed the large lipid drops into many much smaller
lipid droplets by reducing the surface tension.
• The smaller droplets have a much larger surface area then the large drops.
• This means that enzyme molecules have access to much more of their lipid
substrate.
• Emulsification is not chemical digestion as the lipid remains unchanged
chemically. It is just the droplets that have gotten smaller.
 GALL
STONES
Pancreatic Juice
The pancreas is an organ lying just beneath the stomach.
Cells within the pancreas make an alkaline fluid that contributes to
the rise and pH of the food in the duodenum to about 8.0
pancreatic cells secrete:
i. I'm malaise which converts any remaining starch into maltose
ii. Proteas eg trypsin, which convert polypeptides to peptides.
iii. Lipase which converts the emulsified lipids to fatty acids and
glycerol.
Ileum
• Digestion is completed here by enzymes that work together on the
cell surface membranes of the cell lining the ilium or in the
cytoplasm of these cells.
• The enzymes include:
i. Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose.
ii. Sucrase breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose.
iii. Lactase breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose.
iv. Peptidase breakdown peptides into individual amino acids.
The Liver
• The liver is the largest organ in the human body and
it has many different functions including some that
are part of assimilation and excretion.
• Control of glucose: the label controls the
concentration of blood sugar under instructions
from the hormones insulin and Glucagon which are
secreted by the pancreas. Liver cells convert
molecules of glucose into the polysaccharide
glycogen for short term storage.
• Making proteins: use amino acids to make their own
proteins. They also make proteins for the bladder
such as fibrinogen for use and blood clotting and
albumen for maintaining the concentration of
plasma.
The Liver
• Excretion: the body cannot store amino acids that are surplus to
requirements. These molecules are not wasted but are used as a source of
energy. Liver cells remove the nitrogen containing part of these excess
amino acids and use the molecule in respiration. This process is called
deamination. Next urea passes from liver cells into the blood and is
transported to the kidneys where it is excreted as urine.
• Breaking down toxins: any toxic substances that have not been broken
down in the gut or have been produced by bacteria in the gut are broken
down by liver cells in the process of detoxification. Example alcohol, drugs.
• Storage of micronutrients: liver cells store minerals especially iron for the
synthesis of haemoglobin and the fat-soluble vitamins A D and K.
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides are taken by the blood to the liver in the
hepatic portal vein and the liver converts any non-glucose
monosaccharides to glucose. The glucose then enters the
general circulation where:
1. It is used by all body cells in respiration to release energy.
2. Excess is condensed to glycogen by cells in the liver and
muscles. These cells then store the glycogen, or
3. Excess is converted to fat by cells in the liver and adipose
(fat) tissue found under the skin and around organs. Fat made
in adipose tissue is stored, and fat made in the liver is
transported by the blood to adipose tissue and stored.
Amino Acids
• Amino acids are taken by the blood to the liver in the hepatic portal vein. They
then enter the general circulation where:
1. They are used by body cells to make proteins that are used for cell growth and
repair.
2. They are used by body cells to make enzymes.
3. They are used by cells of endocrine glands to make hormones.
4. They are used to make antibodies.
5. Excess are deaminated by the liver because they cannot be stored. The
nitrogen-containing amine groups (NH2) are removed from the molecules and
converted to urea (CO(NH2)2). The urea enters the blood and is excreted by
the kidneys. The remaining parts of the molecules are converted to glucose
which is used in respiration, or are converted to glycogen or fat and stored.
Fatty acids and
glycerol • Fatty acids and glycerol are carried by the lymph
to the general circulation where:
1. They are used to make cell membranes of
newly forming cells.
2. They are used by body cells in respiration
under some circumstances.
3. Excess is converted to fat and stored in
adipose tissue under the skin and around
organs.
ENZYMES
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Draw annotated diagrams to show how an enzyme catalyses a
chemical reaction in which a substrate molecule is broken down into
two product molecules.
REVISION QUESTIONS
2. Name the enzymes that break down a lipids, b proteins and c
carbohydrates.

3. Explain why
a we do not need to make many enzymes in our cells, and
b why we have enzymes in the stomach and intestines.
REVISION QUESTIONS
4. Describe how enzymes respond to changes in temperature.
REVISION QUESTIONS
5. What is the pH scale? How would you use Universal Indicator
solution or paper and some household chemicals to demonstrate the pH
scale to a family friend who never studied science at school?

6. How do changes in pH affect an enzyme?

• (a) Both excretion and egestion are processes that remove waste from
the human body. Explain the difference between these two processes.
(2 marks)
• (b) Table 1 is an incomplete table showing some organs and the
products that they excrete. Complete Table 1 by writing the correct
answers in the spaces labelled (i), (ii) and (iii).

Organ Excretory Product

Lung i.

ii. Sweat

Kidneys iii.
• Matthew is interested in increasing his body mass. His trainer recommends
that his diet should contain more complex carbohydrates and suggest that he
use foods such as potato and cassava which are rich in starch.

a. Name a test that Matthew could use to determine the presence of starch in
his diet. (1mk)
b. Other than potato and cassava state 2 foods that are rich in starch.(2mks)
c. Which of the following foods should match you in just for growth and
repair of his muscle tissue: fish, carrots, lentil peas, plantain? (1mk)
d. Name two reagents that Matthew should use to test for the presence of
protein in his meal. (2mks)
 Table 1 shows the number of children (in hundreds) who
suffer from diet related diseases in Country X and Country Y.
DISEASE NUMBER OF CHILDREN
Country x Country Y
Marasmus 65 55
Kwashiorkor 70 30
Scurvy 35 45
Night Blindness 20 25

i. On the grid provided draw a bar graph to represent the data in table one (3mks)
ii. which country has the higher incidence of both marasmus and kwashiorkor? (1mk)
iii. which country has the lower incidence of disease altogether? (1mk)
iv. Using your knowledge for nutritional diseases suggest the major nutrient that may be lacking in the diet of children
from country X that could cause them to develop night blindness and state one source of this nutrient.
v. As a result of change in government a certain country no longer suffers from the effects of hunger. Suggest 2 diseases
that could develop as a result of overeating and lack of exercise.
80
Chart Title
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Country x Country y

Marasmus Kwashiorkor Scurvy Night blindness

DISEASE NUMBER OF CHILDREN

Country x Country Y
Marasmus 65 55
Kwashiorkor 70 30
Scurvy 35 45
Night Blindness 20 25
• State the meaning of each of the following term:
a. Diffusion (2mks)
b. Osmosis (2mks)

• Figure one and two represent experiments to show the movement of

molecules what experiments show the movement of molecules. Suggest
2 differences between the movement of molecules and figure one and
figure 2. (2mks)
• In which of the diagrams figure one or figure 2 is osmosis taking place?
(1mk)
• after one hour, what would you expect to happen to the level of water in
the beaker in figure 2 and explain why this would occur. (2mks)
• the process of diffusion is necessary in human body in order for it to
obtain essential materials. Other than the small intestine stage 2 organs
in the human body in which diffusion can occur. (2mks)
1. a. ii. Structure B- Enamel
Function- hard outer layer of your teeth that helps to protect the
soft inner tissue, called the pulp, against tooth decay and infection.

ii. A. improper brushing, sugary drinks or foods, acidic food/drinks,lack

of fluoride, etc

iii. Dental visits, proper brushing after meals, using fluoride, limit
tobacco use.
 Table 1: Vitamin & Solubility
Vitamin Solubility
A Water soluble
B1 Water Soluble
C Water Soluble
D Fat soluble

b. i. carbon, nitrogen, sulphur

ii. Structural Support: Proteins provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs. Collagen, for example,
Transportation: Proteins serve as carriers and transporters. Hemoglobin, for instance, is a protein in red blood cells
that transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
Enzymatic Catalysis: Proteins act as enzymes, facilitating and accelerating chemical reactions in the body.
c. Glucose

ii. Due to the type and quality of fats

present in avocados compared to the fats
commonly found in pizza.

Avocados are rich in monounsaturated

fats. Unsaturated fats are considered heart-
healthy as they may help lower bad
cholesterol levels (LDL cholesterol) while
maintaining or increasing good cholesterol
levels (HDL cholesterol).

Pizza is high in saturated fats which raise

CHOLESTEROL LEVELS.
III. Villi: lacteal (absorbs fats) & blood capillaries ( absorps glucose &
amino acids)

iv. Diffusion: moves from an area of high concentration to an area of

low concentration.