The Circulatory System

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 • Humans need to constantly
exchange substances with their
The Circulatory System environment.
• They need to take in useful
substances and get rid of
waste.
• The circulatory system
provides a means of
transporting these substances
between the surfaces where
they are exchanged and the
body cells.
• The circulatory system is
composed of the
cardiovascular system and the
lymphatic system.

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The need for a transport system in the human body
• The absorption and transport of substances in humans is affected by two factors:
- Their surface area to volume ratio.
- The limitations of simple diffusion.
• Humans have a small surface area to volume ratio. Diffusion through their body surface is not
• adequate to supply all their body cells with their requirements and remove their waste. In addition,
most of their body is too far from its surface for substances to move through it by simple diffusion.
• Humans have, therefore, developed a transport system to carry useful substances from specialised
organs that absorb them, e.g. the lungs and ileum, to body cells, and to carry waste substances from
body cells to specialised organs that excrete them, e.g. the kidneys and lungs.
Materials transported around the human body
• The following materials are transported around the human body:
• • Useful substances: oxygen, water, digested food (mainly glucose and amino acids), vitamins,
minerals, hormones, antibodies and plasma proteins. Heat is also carried.
• • Waste substances: carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste, e.g. urea.
The cardiovascular system
• The cardiovascular system consists of:
• • Blood, which serves as the medium to transport substances around the body.
• • Blood vessels, which are tubes through which the blood fl ows to and from all parts of the body.
• • The heart, which pumps the blood through the blood vessels.
Blood
• Blood is composed of three types of cells:
• • red blood cells
• • white blood cells
• • platelets
• These cells are suspended in a fluid called
plasma.
• The cells make up about 45% by volume of the
blood and the plasma makes up about 55%.
 Composition of
plasma
• Plasma is a yellowish fl uid composed of about 90% water and 10%
dissolved substances.
• The dissolved substances consist of:
1. Products of digestion, e.g. glucose, amino acids, vitamins and
minerals.
2. Waste products, e.g. dissolved carbon dioxide and urea.
3. Hormones, e.g. insulin and thyroxine.
4. Plasma proteins, e.g. fibrinogen, prothrombin, albumen and
antibodies.
Centrifuge
 • The main function of plasma is transporting the following:
• • Products of digestion, from the ileum to the liver and the body cells.
• • Carbon dioxide, from body cells to the lungs.
Functions of • • Urea, from the liver to the kidneys.

plasma • • Hormones, from the glands that produce them (endocrine glands) to
target organs.
• • Heat, from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.
 • Serum is plasma without fibrinogen and other
factors needed for the blood to clot.
• Serum is the part of the blood that is left over
after red and white blood cells, platelets and
clotting
• factors have been removed.
• serum = plasma – clotting factors

Serum
Blood cells: RED BLOOD CELLS
• Table 5.1 Structure and functions of blood cells.

Cell Type & Structure Formation of Functions

cells
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) Formed in the red Transport oxygen as
Biconcave discs with a thin centre and relatively bone marrow found oxyhaemoglobin from
large surface area to-volume ratio so gases easily in fl at bones, e.g. the the lungs to body cells.
diffuse in and out. pelvis, scapula, ribs, • Transport small
• Have no nucleus, therefore they only live for sternum, cranium and amounts of carbon
about 3 to 4 months. vertebrae; and in the dioxide from body cells
• Contain the red pigment haemoglobin. ends of long bones, to the lungs.
• Slightly elastic allowing them to squeeze e.g. the humerus and
through the narrowest capillaries. femur.
• Broken down mainly
in the liver and
spleen.
Blood cells: WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• Table 5.1 Structure and functions of blood cells.

Cell Type & Structure Formation of Functions

cells
White blood cells (leucocytes)
Slightly larger than red blood cells and less
numerous; approximately 1 white blood cell
to 600 red blood cells. There are two main
types; 25% are lymphocytes and 75% are
phagocytes.

LYMPHOCYTES
• Have a rounded shape. Develop from cells in the red • Produce antibodies to destroy disease-
• Have a large, round nucleus that controls bone marrow and mature in causing bacteria and viruses
the production of antibodies. other organs, e.g. lymph nodes, (pathogens).
• Have only a small amount of cytoplasm. spleen, thymus gland. • Produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins
produced by pathogens.
Blood cells: WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• Table 5.1 Structure and functions of blood cells.

Cell Type & Structure Formation of Functions

cells
Phagocytes Formed in the red • Engulf and destroy
bone marrow. pathogens.
• Have a variable shape. • Engulf pathogens
• Move by pseudopodia; can move out of destroyed by
capillaries through their walls and engulf antibodies.
pathogens using pseudopodia.
• Have a lobed nucleus.
Blood cells: WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• Table 5.1 Structure and functions of blood cells.

Cell Type & Structure Formation of Functions

cells
Platelets (thrombocytes) Formed from cells in Help the blood to clot
the red bone marrow. at a cut or wound (see
• Cell fragments. Blood clotting,
• Have no nucleus and only live for about
10 days.
Blood cells: WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• Table 5.1 Structure and functions of blood cells.

Cell Type & Structure Formation of Functions

cells
Platelets (thrombocytes) Formed from cells in Help the blood to clot
the red bone marrow. at a cut or wound (see
• Cell fragments. Blood clotting,
• Have no nucleus and only live for about
10 days.
 Blood clotting
• When the skin is cut and bleeds, the blood quickly clots. The following
events occur to form the clot:
1. Platelets in the blood at the cut become spiky in shape, stick to each
other and begin to plug the cut.
2. They also release an enzyme called thrombokinase or
thromboplastin. Thrombokinase, with the help of calcium ions
(Ca2+) and vitamin K in the blood, converts the inactive plasma
protein, prothrombin, into active thrombin.
3. Thrombin converts the soluble plasma protein, fibrinogen, into
insoluble fibrin which forms fibres.The fibrin fibres form a network
across the cut, which traps blood cells and forms a clot.
4. The clot dries and develops into a scab. New skin forms below the
scab and the scab drops off.

• Clotting is important because:

1. The clot prevents further blood loss.
2. The clot prevents pathogens from entering the body.
 Blood groups
• Blood can be classified into different
blood groups based on chemicals present
on the surface of red blood cells known
as antigens.
• There are two grouping systems:
- The ABO system, which divides blood
into four groups; group A, group B, group
AB and group O.
• The rhesus system, which divides blood
into two groups; rhesus positive and
rhesus negative.
Blood vessels
• There are three main types of blood vessels:
• • arteries
• • capillaries
• • veins
ARTERIES
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart. On entering an organ, an artery branches into smaller
arteries called arterioles which then branch into a network of capillaries which run throughout the
organ.
Capillaries then join into small veins called venules which join to form a single vein which leads
back from the organ towards the heart.
Table 5.2 Arteries, capillaries and veins compared
ARTERIES CAPILLARIES VEINS
Transport blood away from the heart to Transport blood throughout all body Transport blood back towards
body tissues and organs. tissues and organs, linking arteries to the heart from body tissues and
veins. organs.
Blood flows through under high Blood flows through under low Blood flows through under low
pressure. pressure. pressure.
Blood moves in pulses created as the Blood flows smoothly Blood flows smoothly
ventricles contract.
Blood flows rapidly. Blood flows very slowly. Blood flows slowly

Blood is oxygenated, except in the Blood becomes deoxygenated as Blood is deoxygenated, except in the
pulmonary arteries. it travels through capillaries. pulmonary veins.
Most lie deep within the body so they are Run throughout all tissues and Many lie close to the body surface.
protected organs.
Do not possess valves, except the aorta Do not possess valves. Possess valves to prevent the low
and pulmonary artery as they leave the pressure, slow flowing blood from
ventricles of the heart. flowing backwards.
Table 5.2 Arteries, capillaries and veins compared
ARTERIES CAPILLARIES VEINS

Have walls composed of three
layers. The walls are thick and
elastic to withstand the high
pressure of the blood.
The walls are composed of a single
layer of endothelial cells so substances
pass easily between the blood and body
cells. They are extremely narrow and
branch repeatedly so that all body cells
are close
to capillaries.
Have walls composed of three layers.
The walls are thin because they do not
have
to withstand high pressure. The lumen is
wide so it does not resist the flow of
low-pressure blood.
The Heart
• The heart is divided into four chambers.
• The two on the right contain deoxygenated blood and
are completely separated from the two on the left,
which contain oxygenated blood, by the septum.
• The top two chambers, called atria, have thin walls and
they collect blood entering the heart from the anterior
and posterior vena cavae and the pulmonary veins.
• Their walls are thin because they only have to pump
blood a short distance into the ventricles.
• • The bottom two chambers, called ventricles, have
thick walls and they pump blood out of the heart via
the pulmonary artery and aorta.
• Their walls are thick because they have to pump blood
longer distances around the body and to the lungs.
• The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of
the right ventricle because it has to pump blood longer
distances.
 • A group of specialized cells in the
wall of the right atrium, called the
The Heart’s Pacemaker (sinoatrial node) pacemaker or sinoatrial node,
spontaneously produce electrical
impulses which travel through the
heart muscle causing it to contract
about 75 times per minute.
• This rate can be modified by nerve
impulses or the hormone
adrenaline, e.g. the rate increases
during exercise or when nervous.
• An artificial pacemaker is a small,
battery-operated device that
generates electrical impulses to
regulate heartbeat.
• It is implanted under the skin and
connected to the heart via tiny
 Cardiac Cycle
• Diastole – the atria and ventricles relax
together, the semi-lunar valves close, the
atria fill up with blood from the anterior
and posterior vena cavae and pulmonary
veins, and the blood flows into the
ventricles. This takes 0.4 seconds.
• Atrial systole – the atria contract together
forcing any remaining blood through the
tricuspid and
bicuspid valves into the ventricles. This
takes 0.1 second.
• Ventricular systole – the ventricles
contract together, the tricuspid and
bicuspid valves close and blood is forced
through the semi-lunar valves into the
aorta and pulmonary arteries. This takes
0.3 seconds.
Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. It is usually
measured in the large arteries in millimetres of mercury or mm Hg. It is expressed as:
• blood pressure (mm Hg) =systolic pressure (highest pressure when the heart contracts)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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diastolic pressure (lowest pressure when the heart relaxes)
• Ideal blood pressure is between 90/60 mm Hg and 120/80 mm Hg. High blood pressure or
hypertension results if a person’s pressure rises to 140/90 mm Hg or above. This can be caused by
a variety of factors.
• During one complete circulation
around the body, the blood flows
DOUBLE Circulation
through the heart twice, therefore,
humans have a double circulation:
• A double circulation is necessary
because blood loses pressure when
it passes through the lungs, so it
goes back to the heart to be given
enough pressure to reach body
organs to supply them with oxygen.
• As it loses pressure passing
through organs, the blood goes
back to the heart again to be given
enough pressure to reach the lungs
to get rid of waste carbon dioxide
and pick up more oxygen.
The major
blood vessels
in the human
body
Causes and effects of heart attacks
• The main cause of a heart attack or myocardial
infarction is atherosclerosis. This occurs when
fatty deposits containing cholesterol, known as
atheromas, build up on the inside of the walls of
the coronary arteries that supply oxygenated blood
to the heart muscle.
• The atheromas cause the lumens of the arteries to
narrow, and their walls to harden and become less
elastic. A blood clot, known as a coronary
thrombosis, may then form in one of the narrow
arteries.
• This clot can partially or completely block the
blood flow through the artery and the section of
the heart muscle supplied by the artery cannot get
oxygen so starts to die, and a heart attack occurs.
FACTORS THAT INCREASE RISK OF HEART ATTACK
• The risk of a heart attack is increased if a person
has hypertension (high blood pressure) or is
exposed to risk factors that can lead to
hypertension, including:
• Being overweight or obese.
• Smoking.
• Too much salt or too much fat in the diet.
• Consumption of too much alcohol.
• Lack of physical exercise.
• Stress.
 SYMPTOMS OF HEART
ATTACK

• Chest pain or discomfort as the chest feels as if it is being pressed

or squeezed.
• Upper body pain or discomfort, e.g. in the arms, shoulders, neck,
jaw or back.
• Shortness of breath.
• Feeling weak, lightheaded or dizzy.
• In some cases the heart stops beating, known as cardiac arrest,
and it can result in death.
 • The lymphatic system consists of:

The lymphatic system • Lymph, which serves as the transporting

medium.
• Lymph vessels or lymphatic vessels,
which are tubes through which lymph
flows.
 • Functions of lymph

Functions of the • • Lymph removes cellular waste and cell debris

from around body cells.

lymphatic system • • Lymph drains excess tissue fl uid from tissues,

which helps to prevent fl uid from building up in
them.
• • Lymph helps maintain normal blood volume and
pressure.
• • Lymphocytes in lymph defend the body against
pathogens.
• • Lymph in the lacteals (lymph capillaries) in the
ileum absorbs fatty products of digestion.
Functions of lymph
nodes • • Lymphocytes and phagocytes in lymph
nodes help destroy pathogens in lymph.
• • Lymph nodes filter dead cells and
cancerous cells out of lymph.
• • Lymph nodes release lymphocytes into
lymph during times of infection.