Data Analysis

HOW AM I GOING TO
TEACH
- Data Analysis
- Interpretation of Data
- Presentation of Data
to my students?
JOSELITO O. JAYME 1
DATA ANALYSIS
Joselito O. Jayme
ANALYSIS,
INTERPRETATION &
PRESENTATION OF
DATA
TOPICS
• Levels of Measurement
• Research questions and examples
• Parametric and Nonparametric Test in Excel and SPSS
• Data Analysis in Excel and SPSS
• Interpretation, Presentation and Write up
• Data Cleaning
Data Analysis 4
OBJECTIVES
• Identify the appropriate level of measurement for different types of data.
• Apply the concepts of levels of measurement to choose the appropriate
statistical tests to analyze data.
• Identify the appropriate research question type for a given research study.
• Identify the appropriate parametric or nonparametric test for a given
research study, based on the level of measurement of the variables being
studied.
• Conduct parametric and nonparametric tests in Excel and SPSS.
• Interpret the results of parametric and nonparametric tests.
• Use Excel tools to clean data, including removing errors, correcting
inconsistencies, and formatting data.
• Perform basic data analysis tasks in Excel and SPSS, such as calculating
descriptive statistics, creating charts and graphs, and conducting statistical
tests.
• Interpret the results of data analysis in Excel and SPSS.
• Discuss different ways to present research results, including tables, charts,
graphs, and text.
Data Analysis 5
LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENT
NOMINAL
Nominal data consists of names, labels, or categories, gender, major at
college.
• each value represents a category
• no inherent order to the categories
• no natural or obvious ordering of data (such as high to low)
• arithmetic cannot be carried out on nominal data
Levels of Measurement 7
NOMINAL
Example
• Gender - Male; Female (dichotomy variable)
• Complexion - tan; fair; black; white (polyotomy variable)
• ID number - 200901043; 2104351140104014
• Cellphone number - 09268334712, 09557887981
• Address - Poblacion, Pamplona; Brgy 9, Tanjay City
• Marital status - single; married; widowed; common law/live-in;
divorce/separated/annulled
ORDINAL
For ordinal data, each value is a category, but there is a meaningful order or
rank to the categories.
• can be arranged in any particular order
• no arithmetic can be done or performed on ordinal data
• with ordinal data, there is not a measurable distance between categories
ORDINAL
Example
• Attitudinal questions (Level of Agreement) - Strongly Disagree (1);
Disagree (2); Neutral (3); Agree (4); and Strongly Agree (5)
• Educational Attainment - elementary level; high school level; college
level; graduate school level
• Income Level - Lower-level income; Middle-level income; Upper-level
income
INTERVAL
For interval data, a one-unit change in numeric value represents the same
change in quantity regardless of where it occurs on the scale.
• no natural zero for interval data
• can add and subtract values but you cannot multiply or divide
• subtraction may be carried out on an interval data
• there is no absolute starting point
• distance between each number on the interval scale is identical
• zero is an arbitrary point, not a complete absence of the variable
• can be measured even if it is negative
INTERVAL
Example
• Temperatures - 5C; 10C; 15C
• Grades - 75%; 80%; 90%
• Scores in Exam - 15; 30; 45
• Time spent in a test - 5 min; 1 hr; 8.5 hrs
RATIO
For ratio data, you have all the properties of interval variables with the
addition of a true zero point, representing the complete absence of the
property being measured.
• division may be carried out on ratio data
• there exists a natural zero for ratio data
• a zero means there’s a total absence of the variable of interest
• no negative numerical value
RATIO
Example
• weight - 55 kg; 180 lbs; 925 grams
• height - 164 cm; 1.79 m; 7 in
• income - $10,000.00; P300,000.00
• age - 0.05 yrs; 1 yr; 7 yrs
IDENTIFY THE LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT OF
THE FOLLOWING PHRASES
City of birth Likert-type questions

Gender Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams) -
Ethnicity Interval or Ratio (depending on
Car brands whether there is a true zero point)
Marital status Personality inventories
Top 5 Olympic medallists Temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius
Language ability (e.g., beginner, Height
intermediate, fluent)
City of birth - Nominal Likert-type questions - Ordinal

Gender - Nominal Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams) -
Ethnicity - Nominal Interval or Ratio (depending on
Car brands - Nominal whether there is a true zero point)
Marital status - Nominal Personality inventories - Interval
Top 5 Olympic medallists - Ordinal Temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius
Language ability (e.g., beginner, - Interval
intermediate, fluent) - Ordinal Height - Ratio
Age Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit or

Weight Celsius (not Kelvin)
Temperature in Kelvin IQ test
Zip code SAT and ACT scores
Political preferences Income range
Employment status Year
Literary genre Voltage
Smartphone brand Grade levels in school
Favorite movie genre
Time of day in a 12-hour clock
Age - Ratio Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit or

Weight - Ratio Celsius (not Kelvin) - Interval
Temperature in Kelvin - Ratio IQ test - interval
Zip code - Nominal SAT and ACT scores - Interval
Political preferences - Nominal Income range - interval
Employment status - Nominal Year - Interval/ratio
Literary genre - Nominal Voltage - Ratio
Smartphone brand - Nominal Grade levels in school - Ordinal
Favorite movie genre - Nominal
Time of day in a 12-hour clock -
Nominal Levels of Measurement 19
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
PRESENTATION TITLE 20
TYPES OF
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
• Descriptive/Classification/Composition
• Correlational/association/relationship
• Difference/Comparative
• Causal/Intervention
Research questions 21
DESCRIPTIVE/CLASSIFICATION
Descriptive/Classification/Composition Quantitative
Research Questions
• Aim to describe the characteristics of a population or
phenomenon.
DESCRIPTIVE/CLASSIFICATION
Example:
• What is the average income of residents in a specific neighborhood?
• What are the personality characteristics of adolescent anorexic girls?
• What are the child-rearing practices of drug-addicted mothers?
• What is the average age of people who live in this city?
• What are the most common types of cars driven by people in this country?
• What are the factors that make up intelligence?
• What are the principal components of personality?
• What are the main factors that make up self-esteem?
CORRELATIONAL/ASSOCIATION
Correlational/Association/Relationship Quantitative
Research Questions
• Investigate the relationship between two or more
variables without implying causation.
• Examine the association between variables.
CORRELATIONAL/ASSOCIATION
Example:
• What is the correlation between hours of study and GPA in college students?
• Is there a correlation between social media use and depression?
• Does using a smartphone while driving increase the risk of an accident?
• What is the relationship between customer satisfaction scores and repeat
purchase behavior?
• Is honesty related to socioeconomic status?
• Is there an association between college grades and study time?
• Is there a positive correlation between exercise and academic achievement?
DIFFERENCE/COMPARATIVE
Difference/Comparative Quantitative Research
Questions
• Investigate differences or changes between groups or
over time.
• Involve comparing two or more groups or conditions.
• Explore differences in means between groups.
Example:
• Is there a significant difference in productivity levels before and after the
implementation of a new workflow system?
• Is there a significant difference in test scores between students who receive
tutoring and those who do not?
• Do men and women have different levels of job satisfaction?
• Is there a difference in academic achievement between students who take
online classes and students who take traditional classes?
Example:
• Is there a significant difference in the average income between different
occupational groups?
• Are women more sensitive than men?
• Are men more aggressive than women?
• Do younger people have better memory than older people?
CAUSAL/INTERVENTION
Causal/Intervention Quantitative Research Questions
• Aim to establish cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
• Evaluate the impact of an intervention or treatment.
CAUSAL/INTERVENTION
Example:
• Does the implementation of a new teaching method lead to an improvement
in student test scores?
• How does a specific medication affect blood pressure levels in patients with
hypertension?
• Does psychotherapy change behavior?
• Does watching violent TV make children more aggressive?
• Does smoking marijuana cause underachievement?
CAUSAL/INTERVENTION
Example:
• Is counseling better than group activity at preventing delinquency?
• Are antidepressant drugs more effective than psychotherapy or a placebo in
decreasing depression?
• Is behavior therapy more effective than client-centered therapy in eliminating
phobias?
• Does social media use lead to depression?
FREQUENCY RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
Frequency Quantitative Research Questions:
• Focus on the frequency of events or behaviors.
Example:
• How often do employees engage in professional development activities
throughout the year?
PREDICTIVE RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
Predictive Quantitative Research Questions:
• Focus on predicting future outcomes based on current variables.
Example:
• Can standardized test scores predict success in the first year of college?
• Can we predict depression scores based on social media use?
• Can we predict academic achievement based on SAT scores?
SCALE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Scale Quantitative Research Questions:
• Utilize Likert scales or other measurement scales.
Example:
On a scale of 1 to 5, how satisfied are customers with the quality of customer
service?
Example:
• To what extent do employees feel motivated in their current roles? (Likert
scale: very motivated, motivated, neutral, unmotivated, very unmotivated)
• How would you rate the effectiveness of your supervisor's leadership style?
(Likert scale: excellent, good, neutral, fair, poor)
• To what extent has the company's health and wellness program positively
influenced your overall well-being? (Likert scale: strongly positively,
positively, neutral, negatively, strongly negatively)
Example:
• To what extent are you concerned about environmental issues? (Likert scale:
very concerned, concerned, neutral, unconcerned, very unconcerned)
• To what extent do students agree that the school's online learning platform is
easy to use?
• How satisfied are employees with the company's new benefits package?
• How strongly do customers agree that the product meets their needs?
PARAMETRIC
AND
NONPARAMETRI
C TESTS
PARAMETRIC TEST
• Population is well-known: Parametric tests assume that the population parameters are
known or can be estimated from the sample data. This means that the population
distribution is assumed to be normal or can be approximated by a normal
distribution.
• Assumptions made about the population: Parametric tests make assumptions about
the distribution of the population from which the sample was taken. This means that
the population is assumed to be normally distributed, and the variances of the groups
being compared are assumed to be equal.
• Sample data based on distribution: Parametric tests assume that the sample data is
normally distributed. This means that the data should be bell-shaped, with most of
the data points concentrated around the mean and fewer data points in the tails of the
distribution.
38
PARAMETRIC TEST
• Applicable for continuous variables: Parametric tests are typically used with
continuous variables. This means that the data can take on any value within a range.
• More powerful: Parametric tests are generally more powerful than nonparametric
tests. This means that they are more likely to detect a true difference between groups.
• Assume normal distribution and equal variance: Parametric tests assume that the
sample data is normally distributed and that the variances of the groups being
compared are equal. If these assumptions are not met, then the results of the
parametric test may be unreliable.
• Suitable for continuous data: Parametric tests are suitable for continuous data, such
as height, weight, and income.
39
PARAMETRIC TEST
• Based on population parameters: Parametric tests are based on the parameters of the
population distribution. This means that the results of the test are more generalizable
to the population than the results of nonparametric tests.
• Generally more powerful when assumptions are met: Parametric tests are generally
more powerful than nonparametric tests when the assumptions of the test are met.
However, if the assumptions are not met, then the parametric test may be less
powerful or even misleading.
• Requires larger sample size: Parametric tests generally require a larger sample size
than nonparametric tests. This is because the assumptions of the parametric test are
more restrictive than the assumptions of the nonparametric test.
40
PARAMETRIC TEST
• Straightforward interpretation of results: The results of parametric tests are generally
straightforward to interpret. This is because the tests are based on a well-understood
statistical theory.
41
NONPARAMETRIC TEST
• No assumptions about the population: Nonparametric tests do not make any
assumptions about the underlying distribution of the data. This means that they can
be used with data that is not normally distributed.
• Arbitrary sample data: Nonparametric tests can be used with data that is measured on
a nominal or ordinal scale. This means that the data does not have to be numerical.
• Applicable for continuous and discrete variables: Nonparametric tests can be used
with both continuous and discrete variables.
• Less powerful: Nonparametric tests are generally less powerful than parametric tests.
This means that they are less likely to detect a true difference between groups.
42
NONPARAMETRIC TEST
• Results are based on ranks or frequencies: Nonparametric tests are based on the ranks
or frequencies of the data. This means that they are less sensitive to outliers than
parametric tests.
• Requires smaller sample size: Nonparametric tests generally require a smaller sample
size than parametric tests.
• More robust to violations of assumptions: Nonparametric tests are more robust to
violations of assumptions than parametric tests. This means that they are less likely
to be affected by outliers or non-normality.
• Suitable for both continuous and categorical data: Nonparametric tests can be used
with both continuous and categorical data.
• No assumptions about distribution or variance: Nonparametric tests do not make any
assumptions about the distribution or variance of the data.
43
Research Design Common Parametric Statistical Tests Common Nonparametric Statistical Tests
Measures of central tendency (mean, median,

mode), measures of variability (standard deviation,
Descriptive
range, interquartile range), frequency distributions,
percentages, crosstabulations
Spearman correlation coefficient,

Correlational
Chi-squared test of independence, Phi correlation,
/Association/ Pearson product-moment correlation
Fisher's exact test,
Relationship
Point-biserial correlation, biserial correlation
Independent samples t-test, Mann-Whitney U test,

Comparative/ paired samples t-test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test,
Difference One way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Kruskal-Wallis test,
Repeated measures ANOVA Friedman test
44
NONPARAMETRIC TESTS
WHEN TO USE THESE TESTS?
DIFFERENCE/
COMPARATIVE/
CAUSAL/INTERVENTION
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
WHAT TEST TO BE USED?

• Mann-Whitney U test
• Wilcoxon signed-rank test
• Kruskal-Wallis Test
• Friedman test
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
Definition
• The Mann-Whitney U test is a non-parametric test used to compare the
central tendencies of two independent groups.
• It is a versatile test that can be used with ordinal or continuous data, and it
does not require the assumption of normality.
NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 47
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
Assumptions
• The samples are independent.
• The data are measured at least on an ordinal scale.
• The distribution of scores for the two groups has the same shape.
• Data are assumed to have a non-Normal or skewed distribution.
• Samples are two randomly selected independent samples.
• Sufficient sample size, usually more than 5 observations in each group.
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
When to use
• As an alternative to the independent sample t-test when the assumptions of
the t-test are not met.
• When the data is not normally distributed.
• When the data is ordinal.
• When the sample size is small.
• When the assumption of equality of variances is not met.
• When comparing two independent groups with ordinal data.
• When comparing two independent groups with continuous data.
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
Scenario
• The teacher researcher wanted to assess the efficacy of a new strategy in
teaching called flipped classroom. To evaluate the effectiveness of the flipped
classroom model, the students were randomly assigned into two groups:
flipped classroom model (experimental group) and traditional model (control
group).
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
Research questions
1. Is there a significant difference between the scores of the control group and
the experimental group in the pretest?
2. Is there a significant difference between the scores of the control group and
the experimental group in the post test?
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
Group (1 =Exp,
Participant Scores
0=Con)
Scenario 1 1 48
Experimental
Control Group
Group
2 1 40
3 1 39
48 14
4 1 50
40 18 5 1 41
39 20 6 1 38
7 1 53
50 10 8 0 14
41 12 9 0 18
10 0 20
38 102
11 0 10
53 17 12 0 12
13 0 102
14 0 17
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
SPSS
• Step 1
Encode your data > Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Legacy Dialogs > 2
Independent Samples > Transfer Score to Test Variable List > Transfer Group to
Grouping Variable > Define Groups > Group 1 = 1, Group 2 = 0 > Continue >
Check Mann-Whitney U > Click OK
• Step 2
Encode your data > Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Independent Samples >
Fields > Use predefined roles > Transfer Scores on Test Fields > Transfer Group
on Groups > Settings > Automatically or customize > Check Mann-Whitney >
Run
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
SPSS
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
SPSS
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST ¿𝑧∨ ¿ ¿
√𝑛
SPSS
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
Reporting
• Objective or Hypothesis
• Statistical test used
• Table reading with appropriate statistics
• Interpretation
• Cross reference
If the p value is less than alpha, reject Ho.
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
The goal of the study is to determine if there is a significant difference between the scores of the control group
(traditional model) and the experimental group (flipped classroom model ) in the post test. Shapiro-Wilk test was
performed to determine whether the scores of the control group (traditional model) and the experimental group
(flipped classroom model) in the post test is normally distributed. The results in the Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that
the scores of the control group (traditional model) is not normally distributed, W(7)=.557, p < .001. Hence, Mann-
Whitney U test, a nonparametric test, is used instead of independent samples t-test. A Mann-Whitney U test was
performed to test the difference between the scores of the control group (traditional model) and the experimental
group (flipped classroom model ) in the post test. The results indicated that the scores of the experimental group
(flipped classroom model) are higher (Md=41, n=7) compared to the scores of the control group (traditional model)
(Md=17, n=7), U=7, z=-2.236, p=.026, with an effect size of r=.60. This findings suggest that the flipped classroom
model is an effective teaching strategy in improving students' performance in the classroom.
WILCOXON SIGNED-RANK TEST
Definition
• The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric test used to compare the
median values of two related groups.
• It is a versatile test that can be used with ordinal or continuous data, and it
does not require the assumption of normality.
Assumptions
• The samples are related.
• The data are measured at least on an ordinal scale.
• The distribution of the differences between the two groups is symmetrical.
When to use
• When the data is not normally distributed.
• When the data is ordinal.
• When the sample size is small.
• When the assumption of equality of variances is not met.
• When comparing two related groups with ordinal data.
• When comparing two related groups with continuous data.
• As an alternative to the t-test when the assumptions of the t-test are not met.
Scenario
• The teacher researcher wanted to assess the efficacy of a new strategy in
teaching called flipped classroom. To evaluate the effectiveness of the flipped
classroom model, the students were randomly assigned into two groups:
flipped classroom model (experimental group) and traditional model (control
group).
Research questions
1. Is there a significant difference between the scores in the pretest and the
post-test in the traditional method of teaching?
2. Is there a significant difference between the scores in the pretest and the
post-test in the new method of teaching (flipped classroom model)?
SPSS
Step 1
Encode your data > Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Legacy Dialogs > 2
Related Samples > Transfer Pretest to Var1 > Transfer Posttest to Var2 >
check Wilcoxon > Options > check descriptives > click continue > Click OK
Step 2
Encode your data > Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Related Samples >
Fields > Use predefined roles > Transfer Pretest & Posttest > Settings >
Automatically > Run
WILCOXON SIGNED-RANK TEST ¿𝑧∨ ¿𝑛¿
√
Reporting
The aim of this study is to determine if there is a difference between the scores in
the pretest and the post-test in the new method of teaching (flipped classroom
model). Since the sample size is small, a nonparametric test, the Wilcoxon
signed-rank test is used. The Wilcoxon signed rank test revealed that the scores in
the pretest were significantly lower (Md = 25.00, n = 12) compared to the scores
in the post-test after (Md = 31.50, n =12), z = -2.040, p = .041, with a large effect
size, r = .59. This shows that the flipped classroom model improves the scores of
the students from the pretest to posttest.
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
Definition
The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance test is a non-parametric test
used to compare the medians of three or more independent groups. It is the non-
parametric equivalent of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and is used
when the assumptions of ANOVA are not met.
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
Assumptions
• The samples are independent of each other.
• The data is at least ordinal.
• The distribution of the data is similar in all groups.
• does not assume that the data are normally distributed.
• The test is based on the ranks of the data.
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
When to Use
• The Kruskal-Wallis test is used when the assumptions of ANOVA are not met.
This can happen when the data is not normally distributed, when the
variances of the groups are not equal, or when the data is ordinal.
• The Kruskal-Wallis test is also used when the researcher is specifically
interested in comparing the medians of the groups.
• When dealing with ordinal or continuous data that do not satisfy parametric
assumptions.
• When comparing the medians of three or more independent groups.
• When assumptions for parametric tests (ANOVA) are not met (e.g., non-
normality, unequal variances).
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
Scenario
• The teacher researcher wanted to assess the efficacy of 2 new strategies in
teaching called Flipped Classroom Model and Station Rotation Model. To
evaluate the effectiveness of the two models: Flipped Classroom Model and
Station Rotation Model, the students were randomly assigned into three
groups: Group 1 (Flipped Classroom Model), Group 2 (Station Rotation
Model) and Group 3 (traditional model (control group)).
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
Research questions:
1. Is there a significant difference between in the central tendency of the scores
of the three groups (Flipped Classroom Model vs. Station Rotation Model vs.
Traditional Model) in the pretest?
2. Is there a significant difference between in the central tendency of the scores
of the three groups (Flipped Classroom Model vs. Station Rotation Model vs.
Traditional Model) in the post test?
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
SPSS
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
Reporting
To test the difference between the central tendency of the scores of the three
groups (Flipped Classroom Model vs. Station Rotation Model vs. Traditional
Model) in the post test, a Kruskal-Wallis test is used. The Kruskal-Wallis test
revealed a statistically significant difference in the scores of the post test of the
three teaching groups (Flipped Classroom Model vs. Station Rotation Model vs.
Traditional Model), H(2, N = 17) = 9.944, p = .007. The scores of the post test
were lower in the Traditional Model (Md = 6.50) in comparison to the Flipped
Classroom Model (Md = 10.00) and Station Rotation (Md = 19.50). This findings
suggest that Station Rotation is more effective than Flipped Classroom Model
and Traditional Model.
CORRELATIONAL/
ASSOCIATION/
RELATIONSHIP
WHAT TEST TO BE USED?

Chi-Square Test of Independence
Spearman Rank Correlation
Point-biserial correlation
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
Definition:
The Chi-Square test of independence is a non-parametric statistical test used to
determine whether there is a significant relationship between two categorical
variables.
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
Assumptions:
• The data are independent.
• The data are at least ordinal.
• The expected cell counts are greater than 5.
• There are no outliers.
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
When to use:
• is used to determine whether two categorical or nominal variables are likely
to be related or not.
• is used when two categorical variables are to be tested for independence.
• is used to test if two categorical variables are associated.
• is used to determine if there is a significant relationship between two nominal
(categorical) variables
• is used when you have counts of values for two categorical variables.
• is used if you have only a table of values that shows frequency counts.
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
Scenario
• The teacher researcher wanted to know if there is an association between type
of preschool experience a child has and the child's behavior in kindergarten.
The researcher sample 100 students and gather their data about type of
preschool experience a child has and the child's behavior in kindergarten.
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
Research Questions
• Is there an association between type of preschool experience a child has and
the child's behavior in kindergarten?
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
SPSS
Encode your data > Analyze > Descriptive Stat > Crosstabs > Transfer
School Type to Row (Independent) > Behavior to Column (Dependent) >
Cells > check Observed and Expected > Continue > Statistics > check chi-
square and phi and Cramer's V > Continue > Ok
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF
INDEPENDENCE
Reporting
This section shows the Pearson's chi-square tests of independence between type
of preschool experience a child has and the child's behavior in kindergarten. The
null hypothesis for this test is that there is no association between type of
preschool experience a child has and the child's behavior in kindergarten. The test
shows a significant association between the type of preschool experience children
obtained and their behavior in the kindergarten variables was significant, , p
= .021, with an effect size, Cramer's V = .240. This suggest that good behavior
were more likely from No preschool than private school.
SPEARMAN'S CORRELATION
Definition
• The Spearman rank-order correlation is a statistical procedure that is designed
to measure the relationship between two variables on an ordinal scale of
measurement if the sample size is .
• Spearman's Rho is a non-parametric test used to measure the strength of
association between two variables.
Assumptions:
• You need two variables that are either ordinal, interval or ratio.
• There is a monotonic relationship between the two variables.
When to use:
• Substitute for Pearson product-moment correlation
• When the relationship between your two variables looks monotonic you
would run a Spearman's correlation because this will then measure the
strength and direction of this monotonic relationship.
Scenario
The teacher researcher wanted to know the relationship between number of hours
studying and the scores in the quarter exam. The researcher sample 8 students
and take their number of hours studying and the scores in the quarter exam.
Research Questions
• Is there a relationship between number of hours studying and the scores in the
quarter exam.
SPSS
Reporting
To test the relationship between number of hours studying and the scores in the
quarter exam, the Spearman's rank-order correlations were run to examine the
relationships between number of hours studying and the scores in the quarter
exam. Spearman's rank-order correlation was not significant, rs= -.619, n = 8, p
= .102. Hence, the number of hours studying is not correlated to the scores in the
exam.
POINT-BISERIAL CORRELATION
Definition:
• Point-biserial correlation is a statistical method used to measure the
strength and direction of the association between one continuous variable
and one dichotomous variable.
• It is a special case of Pearson's correlation coefficient, which is used when
two variables are both continuous.

Assumptions:
There are five assumptions that must be met in order for point-biserial
correlation to be used:
• One of the variables must be continuous.
• The other variable must be dichotomous.
• There should be no outliers for the continuous variable.
• The continuous variable should be approximately normally distributed.
• The continuous variable should have equal variances for both categories
of the dichotomous variable.

When to use:
• Point-biserial correlation should be used when you want to measure the
strength and direction of the association between one continuous variable
and one dichotomous variable.
• It is often used in situations where one variable is difficult or impossible
to measure continuously, such as when measuring gender or smoking
status.

Scenario
The researcher wants to determine whether there is a relationship between gender
and the scores in math. The researcher sample 17 students and take their gender
and the scores in math.

Research Questions
Is there a significant relationship between gender and and the scores in math.

SPSS


Reporting
A point-biserial correlation was run to determine the relationship between gender

and the scores in math. There was a correlation between gender and the scores in
math, which was statistically significant (rpb = .657, n = 17, p < .01). This
suggests that there is a strong relationship between gender and the scores in math.
In addition, the mean scores of the males in math (x = 10.63) indicates lower
scores than of females (x = 18.11).

Association or Correlation or Relationship
STATISTICAL TEST
IV DV
NONPARAMETRIC PARAMETRIC
Nominal Nominal chi-square test of independence None
Nominal Ordinal chi-square test of independence None
Point-Biserial/Biserial
Nominal Scale chi-square test of independence
Correlation
Ordinal Nominal chi-square test of independence None
Spearman's rank-order or chi-square test of
Ordinal Ordinal None
independence or Kendall correlation
Ordinal Scale Spearman's rank-order None
Point-Biserial/Biserial
Scale Nominal chi-square test of independence
Correlation
Scale Ordinal Spearman's rank-order or Kendall correlation None
Scale Scale Spearman's rank-order or Kendall correlation Pearson’s correlation
108
WRITING THE STATISTICAL
TREATMENT OF DATA
Student’s Edition

SAMPLES OF RESEARCH
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

(Safra, 2020)
(Reeves, et al., 2014)
(Anuar Zaini, Lim, Low, & Harun, 2005)
(Beredo, 2019)
(Asmare, Taddele, Berihun, & Wagnew, 2018)
Statistical Treatment of Data:
In this study, data was collected through a combination of primary and secondary
sources. Primary data was collected using [insert method here], while secondary data
was obtained through [insert method here].
[Insert information about the sample size, sample selection, and any inclusion or
exclusion criteria used.]
Once the data was collected, it was processed and analyzed using [insert software or
method used]. First, the data was checked for errors and outliers. Any missing data was
imputed using [insert method here].
Next, [insert statistical analyses used], were conducted to examine the relationships
between the variables of interest. [Insert any other statistical or qualitative analyses
conducted, such as thematic analysis or content analysis.]
Finally, the results were presented in [insert format], including tables, figures, and
written descriptions of the findings. [Insert any limitations or caveats to the findings.]
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
The data collected for this study was analyzed using [insert statistical software or method]. The analyses
performed were selected to test the hypotheses and research questions posed in the study.
Descriptive statistics were used to summarize and describe the characteristics of the data. Measures of central
tendency such as mean, median, and mode were computed for continuous data, while frequencies and
percentages were used for categorical data. Additionally, measures of variability such as range, standard
deviation, and variance were computed to describe the dispersion of the data.
Inferential statistics were utilized to examine the relationships between variables and test for significant
differences between groups. [Insert specific inferential tests used, such as t-tests, ANOVA, chi-square, or
regression analysis.] The level of significance was set at [insert significance level] for all tests.
Assumptions of the statistical tests were checked to ensure the validity of the results. [Insert any checks
performed, such as testing for normality or homogeneity of variances.]
Ethical considerations were also taken into account during the statistical treatment of data. [Insert any ethical
considerations, such as confidentiality or informed consent.]
Overall, the statistical treatment of data was conducted with the goal of providing a comprehensive and
accurate analysis of the data collected for the study. The results of the analyses are presented in [insert format],
including tables, figures, and written descriptions of the findings. [Insert any limitations or caveats to the
findings.]
DATA PRESENTATION

WHAT IS DATA PRESENTATION?
• Data presentation is a process of comparing two or more data sets with
visual aids, such as graphs.
• Using a graph, you can represent how the information relates to other data.
This process follows data analysis and helps organize information by
visualizing and putting it into a more readable format.
• This process is useful in nearly every industry, as it helps professionals share
their findings after performing data analysis.

TYPES OF DATA PRESENTATION
• Textual
• Tabular
• Diagrammatic

Textual
• When presenting data in this way, you use words to describe the relationship
between information. Textual presentation enables researchers to share
information that cannot display on a graph. An example of data you may
present textually is findings in a study. When a researcher wants to provide
additional context or explanation in their presentation, they may choose this
format because, in text, information may appear more clear.
• Textual presentation is common for sharing research and presenting new
ideas. It only includes paragraphs and words, rather than tables or graphs to
show data.

Tabular
• Tabular presentation is using a table to share large amounts of information.
• When using this method, you organize data in rows and columns according to
the characteristics of the data.
• Tabular presentation is useful in comparing data, and it helps visualize
information.

Tabular
Researches use this type of presentation in analysis, such as:
• Qualitative classification: Qualities including, nationality, age, social status,
appearance, and personality traits may appear in a table to review and
compare sociological and psychological information.
• Quantitative classification: This category includes items you can count or
number.
• Spatial classification: This applies to situations where information uses a basis
of location, such as data on a city, state or region.
• Temporal classification: Time is the variable in this category, so any measure
of time, including, seconds, hours, days or weeks, may help classify the data.
Tabular
The benefits of using a table to share your data are that it simplifies the data
making it easily consumable to viewers, helps provide a side-by-side comparison
of the variables you choose and it can save space in your presentation because a
table condenses the information.

Diagrammatic
This method of displaying data uses diagrams and images. It is the most visual
type for presenting data and provides a quick glance at statistical data. There are
four basic types of diagrams, including:
• Pictograms: This diagram uses images to represent data. For example, to
show the number of books sold in the first release week, you may draw five
books, where each image accounts for 1,000 books and consumers bought
5,000 books.
• Cartograms: This includes any type of map that shares the location of a
person, place or object. For example, cartograms help navigate theme parks
so you can find attractions, food and gift shops.
Diagrammatic
• Bar graphs: This type uses rectangles of different sizes on an x and y-axis to
represent different amounts in a data set. It depicts numerical values and uses
rectangles to display data for variables in your research.
• Pie charts: In this type of diagram, data appears as a fraction in a circle. This
displays any type of numerical data but works well with fewer variables.

Diagrammatic
Since they are more visual than the other methods of presenting data, diagrams
can share more information about the relationships between variables in the data
set. For example, a bar graph can show data by color, and size of the rectangle
and use a more advanced bar graph to share data from multiple variables over
time. The diagrammatic presentation also helps read data quickly and provides an
easy comparison.

HOW TO PRESENT RESEARCH
DATA?
SOME GENERAL RULES
• Keep it simple. This golden rule seems obvious but authors who have
immersed in their data sometime fail to realize that readers are lost in the
mass of data they are a little too keen to present. Present too much
information tends to cloud the most pertinent facts that we wish to convey.
• First general, then specific. Start with response rate and description of
research participants (these information give the readers an idea of the
representativeness of the research data), then the key findings and relevant
statistical analyses.
• Data should answer the research questions identified earlier.

DATA?
SOME GENERAL RULES
• Leave the process of data collection to the methods section. Do not include
any discussion. These errors are surprising quite common.
• Always use past tense in describing results.
• Text, tables or graphics? These complement each other in providing clear
reporting of research findings. Do not repeat the same information in more
than one format. Select the best method to convey the message.

DATA ANALYSIS IN EXCEL

PAIRED-SAMPLES T-TEST
A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare the scores in the pretest and
the post-test in the new method of teaching (flipped classroom model). A
Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that the differences between the pretest and the post-
test were normally distributed, W = .90(12), p = .156.
A paired-samples t-test revealed that the scores in the pretest were significantly
lower (M = 28.08, n = 12) compared to the scores in the post-test after (M =
32.83, n = 12), t(11) = -2.188, p = .051, with a large effect size, r = .63. This
shows that the flipped classroom model improves the scores of the students from
the pretest to posttest.

INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES T-TEST
The goal of the study is to determine if there is a significant difference between the
scores of the control group (traditional model) and the experimental group (flipped
classroom model ) in the post test. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to
compare the scores of the control group (traditional model) and the experimental group
(flipped classroom model) in the post test. There was a significant difference between
the scores of the control group (traditional model) (M = 27.57, SD = 33.00) and the
experimental group (flipped classroom model ) (M = 44.147, SD = 33.00) in the post
test. The results indicated that the scores of the experimental group (flipped classroom
model) are higher compared to the scores of the control group (traditional model). This
suggest that the flipped classroom model is an effective teaching strategy in improving
students' performance in the classroom.

DATA?
A one-way independent-samples analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted
to investigate the impact of the three groups (Flipped Classroom Model vs.
Station Rotation Model vs. Traditional Model) scores of the post test. There was
a significant effect of course on the grade, F(2, 27) = 294.54, p < .01. This
suggest that there is a significant difference between the scores of the three
groups (Flipped Classroom Model vs. Station Rotation Model vs. Traditional
Model) in the post test.

DATA?
SOME GENERAL RULES
• Leave the process of data collection to the methods section. Do not include
any discussion. These errors are surprising quite common.
• Always use past tense in describing results.
• Text, tables or graphics? These complement each other in providing clear
reporting of research findings. Do not repeat the same information in more
than one format. Select the best method to convey the message.

REFERENCES
• Siebert, C. F., & Siebert, D. C. (2018, January 1). Data Analysis with Small Samples and Non-normal Data. Oxford University Press.
• Sheskin, D. J. (2000, February 24). Handbook of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Procedures. Chapman and Hall/CRC.
• Linebach, J. A., Tesch, B. P., & Kovacsiss, L. M. (2013, November 19). Nonparametric Statistics for Applied Research. Springer Science & Business Media.
• Kraska-MIller, M. (2013, December 9). Nonparametric Statistics for Social and Behavioral Sciences. CRC Press.
• Conover, W. J. (1999, January 7). Practical Nonparametric Statistics. John Wiley & Sons.
• https://www.statisticssolutions.com/free-resources/directory-of-statistical-analyses/mann-whitney-u-test/
• https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/mann-whitney-u-test-assumptions.php
• Corder, G. W., & Foreman, D. I. (2009). Nonparametric Statistics for Non-Statisticians. John Wiley & Sons.
• https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/06/hypothesis-testing-parametric-and-non-parametric-tests-in-statistics/#h-what-is-a-parametric-test
• https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1b-statistical-methods/parametric-nonparametric-
tests#:~:text=Parametric%20tests%20are%20those%20that,used%20for%20non%2DNormal%20variables.
• https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/db2woc?topic=nonparametric-background
• https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/db2woc?topic=procedures-statistics-parametric-nonparametric
• https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/db2woc?topic=nonparametric-background
• https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1b-statistical-methods/parametric-nonparametric-
tests#:~:text=Parametric%20tests%20are%20those%20that,used%20for%20non%2DNormal%20variables.
• https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/06/hypothesis-testing-parametric-and-non-parametric-tests-in-statistics/#h-what-is-a-parametric-test
• https://towardsdatascience.com/parametric-tests-the-t-test-c9b17faabfb0
• Sheskin, D. J. (2000, February 24). Handbook of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Procedures. Chapman and Hall/CRC.
• https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/levels-of-measurement/
• https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/ordinal-data/
• https://vitality.io/interval-data-definition/
• Corder, G. W., & Foreman, D. I. (2009). Nonparametric Statistics for Non-Statisticians. John Wiley & Sons.
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4453119/
• https://in.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/data-presentation#:~:text=Data%20presentation%20is%20a
%20process,information%20relates%20to%20other%20data.
• Bhandari, P. (2023, June 21). Nominal Data | Definition, Examples, Data Collection & Analysis. Scribbr. Retrieved November 27, 2023, from
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/nominal-data/
THANK
YOU!
"The process of research and data
analysis can be challenging but
remember that every obstacle you
overcome brings you closer to
discovering something new and
valuable.“
-ChatGPT
Joselito O. Jayme
Joselito.jayme001@deped.gov.ph
Pamplona National High School PRESENTATION TITLE 136
CLOSING MESSAGE
"The process of research and data analysis

can be challenging but remember that every
obstacle you overcome brings you closer to
discovering something new and valuable."

Data Analysis

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Data Analysis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HOW AM I GOING TO

• Research questions and examples

• Parametric and Nonparametric Test in Excel and SPSS

• Data Analysis in Excel and SPSS

• Interpretation, Presentation and Write up

City of birth Likert-type questions

City of birth - Nominal Likert-type questions - Ordinal

Age Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit or

Age - Ratio Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit or

Measures of central tendency (mean, median,

Spearman correlation coefficient,

Independent samples t-test, Mann-Whitney U test,

WHEN TO USE THESE TESTS?

WHAT TEST TO BE USED?

If the p value is less than alpha, reject Ho.

WHAT TEST TO BE USED?

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 100

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 101

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 102

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 103

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 104

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 105

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 106

A point-biserial correlation was run to determine the relationship between gender

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 107

PRESENTATION TITLE 109

STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

PRESENTATION TITLE 110

PRESENTATION TITLE 118

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 119

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 120

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 121

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 122

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 124

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 126

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 127

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 128

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 129

PRESENTATION TITLE 130

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 131

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 132

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 133

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 134

"The process of research and data analysis

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS 137

You might also like