CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING

Introduction
The construction of a structure requires a
thorough understanding of fabrication,
application, field testing, and properties
of materials. Thus, a thorough knowledge
of properties and performance of
materials and construction practices are
required to develop, design, and build a
safe, economical, and durable structure.
 An introductory course on materials of
construction or civil engineering is commonly
set on the following aspects:
 Physical, mechanical, and other important
properties of materials
 Fabrication or method of manufacture
 Durability and long-term performance
 Specifications and standards
 Application or methods of use
 Laboratory testing procedure
 Material testing procedures history
Civil engineering embodies professionals who
design, construct, maintain, inspect and
manage public works projects. Such projects
include characteristically diverse groups of
facilities such as:
railroads
high-rise office buildings
And sewage treatment centers
 The construction maybe:
 Underground or above ground;
 Offshore or inland;
 Over-mile deep valleys or flat terrains;
 And through rocky mountains or clayey soils.

(Just the thought that all these creative efforts are made possible through the marvelous innovative spirits of civil engineers is comforting
and appealing as well as challenging for prospective civil engineers. These gigantic achievements stand to promote the scope of civil
engineering potential.)
 Civil Engineering Profession
The profession of civil engineering is of fairly
recent origin [the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), the oldest national
engineering society in the United States, was
founded in 1852], civil engineering works is as
old as humankind. The most ambitious and
historically significant projects throughout the
history of civilization were built to satisfy
human needs for
  Transportation;
 Water;
 Shelter;
 and disaster control.
 Historical Rulers on Civil Engg Const.
1. Babylonian dynasty of King Hammurabi (about
1800 B.C), initiated sweeping brooms and
construction programs documented in historical
manuscripts;
2. King in Assyria, 700 B.C., who was called a great
engineer-king, built a dam across the river Tebitu,
and from the reservoir thus created, constructed
many canals. The canal walls were built from
cubes of stone and the floor had a layer of
concrete or mortar under the top course of stone
to prevent leakage.
3. All Mesopotamian cities found that time were
paved with slabs of stone and brick;
4. The first Emperor of Chinese dynasty in China
(259-210 B.C.) started the building of the
Great Wall of China for protection from the
Huns ( ).
a person who is destructive

5. The Great Roman Emperor Constantine I, after

his conversion to Christianity, built the city of
Constantinoples and dedicated it as his capital
(A.D. 330).
 6. Sumerians (around 3000B.C.), built houses
with mud bricks joined by locally available
bitumen.
7. Mesopotamians built mud-brick huts without
windows which keep out the sizzling heat of
the summer sun.
8. People in Sri Lanka, had houses made of
wooden frames and removable reed mat (reed-any of
various tall grasses with slender often prominently jointed stems that grow esp. in wet areas).

this type of house being cheap and practical, is

still being built.
 9. At Harappa, along the rich alluvial banks of
the Indus River (Indian/Pakistan), there
remains two large and expertly constructed
cities (3000-1500B.C.), the cities were planned
around a central citadel and ( citadel ('si-tə-dəl)- a fortress that commands a city)

constructed of good-quality burned brick.

10. Eastern Chou dynasty in China (770-250B.C.),
a number of cities were built, usually
rectangular or square on a north-south axis
and they had double walls with a moat (deep and wide
trench around the rampart of a fortified place (as a castle) that is usu. filled with water ).
11. The Assyrians, Mesopotamia, 1100-750 B. C.,
knew how to construct buildings that would
not be destroyed by fire. Their buildings were
made of stone, so that the fire burned off on
roof only.
12. In Babylon (King Nabopolassar, 600 B.C.) city
walls were built using two walls, one outer
and one inner and filling the space between
them with rubble , generally up
(rough stone as it comes from the quarry)

to ground level.
 13. The Ishtar Gate of Babylon (King
Nebuchadrezzar, around 550 B.C.), was
finished with enameled(to form a glossy surface on (as paper, leather, or cloth)

bricks, blue on the towers and green and pink

on the connecting walls. The roads were
paved with massive stone blocks set in
asphalt.
14. The post-and-beam framing in timber owes
its development to the Greeks.
 The brief historical perspective of civil
engineering construction shows that the
materials of construction were, for the most
part, of native origin and satisfied
environmental compatibility. Thus, this
statement applies to most basic materials
used in today’s civil engineering structures,
but not for all.
Responsible for the introduction of materials
to the construction market
Advances in engg techniques;
Resource constraints; (the state of being checked, restricted, or compelled to avoid or perform
some action ‹the ~ and monotony of a monastic life).

Cost-cutting measures.
 Engineering Materials
The basic materials used in civil engineering
applications or in construction are:
 Wood
 Concrete
 Bitumen (an asphalt of Asia Minor used in ancient times as a cement and mortar)

 Structural clay and concrete units

 Reinforcing and structural steel
These materials are sometimes called as Structural
Materials.
Addition:
 Plastics
 Soils
 Aluminum
Used in civil engineering structures:
 Dams
 Bridges
 Roads
 Foundations
  Liquid-retaining structures
 Waterfront structures (land, land with buildings, or a section of a town fronting or abutting on a body
of water) (abutting-to touch along a border or with a projecting part ‹land ~s on the road›)

 Buildings
 Retaining walls
Highway materials:
 Soils
 Aggregates
 Bituminous binder (something (as tar or cement) that produces or promotes cohesion in loosely
assembled substances).

 Lime (a dry white powder consisting essentially of calcium hydroxide that is made by treating quicklime with water ).

 cement
Wood – derived from trees and can be used
directly as pieces of lumber obtained from the
log or as a raw material in the manufacture of
various wood products.
plywood
Timber
Oriented strand board (strand-the land bordering a body of water)
 Concrete:
 is a basic construction material made with
portland cement as a primary ingredient.
• Portland cement ( and other types of
cement) – are also used in the
manufacture of many other construction
materials).
is used in combination with other
distinctly different materials to produce
concrete such as
 Reinforcing steel bars
 Polypropylene fibers
 High strength wires
Bitumen (comes in variety of forms) – is
combined with other raw materials in the
construction of:
 Pavements;
 Roof shingles;
 Water proofing compounds.
Structural clay and concrete units (commonly
called bricks and blocks) – are the principal
elements in the construction of masonry
walls.
Structural steel – is used in many forms and
shapes for the construction of railroad ties,
high-rise buildings, roof trusses, and many
more.
 The basic materials are selected for the
following:
Properties;
Performance;
Availability;
Aesthetics;
Cost.
Note: Knowledge of this aspects is essential in
selecting a suitable material for a particular
situation.
 Secondary materials of construction or the
nonstructural materials:
 Sealants;
 Adhesives; (as glue or cement)

 Floor and wall coverings;

 Fasteners;(AFFIX implies an imposing of one thing on another by gluing, impressing, or nailing ‹affix your address label
here›.)

 Doors and windows.

These materials are selected on quality
guidelines and aesthetic considerations.
Sealants
Water Proofing Compoubd
Fasteners
Fasteners
Adhesive
Properties of Engineering Materials
Materials for highway bridge should have
adequate strength, rough surface, and
sufficient rigidity.
Water-retaining structure can be built using
materials that are impermeable, crack-free,
strong, and do not react with water.
Road surface can be built using materials that
show little movement under load, are water
resistant, and are easy to repair.
Properties of materials are grouped under
three major headings:
1. Physical properties
2. Mechanical properties
3. Chemical properties
Physical properties – are those derived from
properties of matter or physical structure.
They include density, porosity or voids,
moisture content, specific gravity,
permeability, and structure (micro or macro).
 In addition:
 Texture;
 color; and;
 Shape
The physical properties are helpful in evaluating
a material in terms of appearance, weight,
permeability, and water retention.
 Mechanical Properties
 Measure the resistance of a material to
applied loads or forces.
 Some reflect the strength of the material,
whereas others measures the
deformation capacity or stiffness.
 Includes strength, deformation,
brittleness, plasticity and ductility.
Strength – is a measure of the maximum load
per unit area, and can be in tension,
compression, shear, flexure, torsion, or impact.
The deformation capacity or stiffness is
measured in terms of elastic modulus. A
knowledge of both the strength and
deformation capacity of materials is absolutely
essential in the selection of a construction
material. A high-strength material need not
possess a high deformation capacity or
stiffness.
 Chemical properties
Are those pertaining to the composition and
potential reaction of a material. The
compounds of composition, such as oxides
and carbonates, describe the chemical nature
of the material. They explain the material
behaves in a certain environment.
Other chemical properties:
 Acidity
 Alkalinity
 Resistance to corrosion
Addition to Properties of Eng’g Materials

 Thermal;
 Electrical;
 Magnetic;
 Acoustical and;
 Optical, are also important in civil engg.
Thermal properties – represent the behavior of a
material under heat or temperature.
Acoustical properties – sound transmission and
sound reflection that should provide sound
resistance and act as sound barriers.
Optical properties – such as color, light
transmission, and light reflection are essential
in determining the energy consumption
capacity of a material.
Electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability
– are needed in materials used in electrical
works.
The goal of engineering
design
“To select the best
material for a particular
job.”
 Loads and stresses
When a solid body is subjected to external
forces, called loads, the body is deformed and
internal forces are produced. The internal
forces which act between consecutive
particles, called stresses, are proportional to
the external loads. Ex. A rubber band.
The change in length immediately following the
application of a unidirectional force is called
deformation or (linear deformation).
The deformation per unit length is called strain.
Strain is thus a ratio between the change in
length and the length along which the change
is measured, called gage length. It is usually
expressed as inches per inch of length.
Strain, e’ = e/l ; where e is the change in length
over a length l.
Stress measures the force acting on a unit area
of an imaginary section through the body-are
proportional to the external loads.
 A force acting along the axis of the member
causes axial stress or direct stress. When the
axial force is in tension, the resulting stress is a
tensile stress, and when it is in compression,
the corresponding stress is compressive stress.
Shearing stress is produced by forces that tend
to slide one particle upon another, and it acts
along or parallel to the cross-sectional plane.
Bending stress (or normal stress or flexural
stress) is produced by external forces that
create bending moment.
 Strain
Deformation
 The change in linear dimension;
 Used to indicate the change in form of a body
and may be the result of more than one cause
– like; thermal change, moisture loss, and
applied loads.
Shear deformation – is the change in length
measured parallel to the direction of the shear
forces.
 The ratio of lateral (perpendicular to the axial
direction) to axial strains (when loaded along the
axis) is called Poisson’s ratio (named after the
person who defined it in 1811).
Most materials of construction have a Poisson ratio
in the range 0.15 to 0.40.
 Glass – 0.24
 Steel – 0.28
 Granite – 0.25 (a very hard natural igneous rock
formation of visibly crystalline texture formed
essentially of quartz and orthoclase or microcline
and used esp. for building and for monuments).
  Concrete – lies between 0.1 and 0.18
depending on the mix proportions. Increase in
cement content increases Poisson’s ratio.
 Cement mortar – 0.16
Volumetric deformation – the change in the
volume of a material.
Volumetric strain – the ratio between the
change in volume and initial volume.
Change in volume = l x b x d (1-2pᵣ)e’
where; l, b and d are dimensions of the
members. pᵣ is Poisson's ratio, and e’ is the
axial strain.
Volumetric strain = (1-2pᵣ)e’
Stress – Strain Curve
 Stiffness
Is a measure of the relative deformability of a
material under load.
“A material that develops a high level of strain
under a given stress is less stiff than is a
material that has less strain when subjected to
the same stress.”
Steel is stiffer than cast iron, which is stiffer than
concrete.
 Elasticity – is that property of a material that
enables it to change its length, volume, or
form in direct response to the force applied,
and to recover its original size or form when
the load is completely removed.
Steel and rubber – endure a large amount of
strain or deformation and still return to their
original form.
Concrete (in compression) – is an example of a
material that will recover its original size only
when the applied stress is low.
Elastic limit – is the maximum stress below
which a material will fully recover its original
form on the removal of the applied forces.
- the greatest stress that can be
applied without causing a permanent
deformation.
- is approximated as the
proportional limit or yield point of a material.
Brick and stone – elastic limit is low.
Most metals – elastic limit is high.
 Proportional limit – is the maximum stress
below which the ratio between stress and
strain is constant.
Note: Most materials exhibit the same elasticity
in compression and tension.
Yielding point – is the first unit stress at which
deformation continues without an increase in
load.
For most materials- the yield point is higher than
the elastic limit and the proportional limit.
In steel the difference is 5 to 15%.
 Set or permanent set – strain or deformation
remaining in a previously stressed material after
it is unloaded.
The stress at which upon removal of the load, the
material displays a specified amount of offset is
the yield strength of the material
Modulus of elasticity (elastic modulus and
coefficient of elasticity) – the ratio of stress to
corresponding strain below the proportional
limit.
- this also refers to the stiffness in the
elastic range and is generally using the letter E.
 Three moduli of elasticity:
 Modulus in Tension
Modulus Compression
Modulus Shear
Modulus of elasticity in tension, or compression
is also called Young’s modulus (named after
Thomas Young, who derived it).
The modulus of elasticity of all grades of steel is
about 29 x 10ᶝ psi and that of structural
aluminum is 10.5 x 10ᶝ psi.
The modulus of elasticity of most construction
materials (e. g. concrete, wood, and cast iron)
is not constant.
The modulus of elasticity in tension or
compression. Young’s modulus
E = f/e’
Where f is the stress and e’ is the strain.
The slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress-
strain curve at the origin is the initial tangent
modulus.
When the modulus is measured as the slope of a
tangent drawn at specified stress fs, it is called
a tangent modulus of at stress fs.
Secant modulus – is the slope of a line
connecting two points on the stress-strain
curve.
Modulus of elasticity in shear – the ratio
between shear stress and shear strain.
Shear modulus, Es = E/2(1+pᵣ)
where pᵣ is Poisson’s ratio.
Ultimate Strength – is the maximum stress that
can be applied to a material before it
fractures. It is the highest point in the stress-
strain curve.
 Ductile and Brittle Materials
Plasticity – is the property of a material that
enables it to retain permanent set or
deformation without fracture (e.g. plastic clay)
- is important in forming, shaping, and
extruding procedures.
- shows a characteristic of a material that
is important in predicting the type of failure in
the material.
Construction Materials are divided into two
classes
 Plastic or ductile materials
 Brittle materials
Ductile material – is capable of undergoing a
high level of plastic deformation before
failure.
Ductility – is a property that allows the material
to undergo change of form without breaking.
Examples:
Wrought iron
 Steel
Copper ore
Toughness – represents the ability of material to
support loads even after yielding or forming
cracks.
Brittle materials – have little or no plasticity or
show little deformation beyond the plastic
limit…failure is sudden and catastrophic.
Brittleness – express breakage with a
comparatively smooth fracture (e.g. peanut
brittle).
 Some brittle materials:
 Cast iron
 Granite
 Brick
 Concrete
 Glass
These materials at failure, crush or crumble with
very little warning.
When subjected to compressive forces, ductile
materials simply spread and increase in area
 under an increasing load.
Brittle materials fail by shearing on certain
angles. The rupture in brittle materials can be
along a diagonal plane, or can be cone
shaped, or pyramid shapes.
Cylindrical specimens generally fail along a
diagonal plane (e.g. cast iron) or as a pyramid
with splitting above (e.g. concrete).
 Selection of Materials
All primary materials of construction (i. e.
structural materials) have to perform the
following functions:
 Carry the prescribed load;
 Satisfy serviceability requirements;
 Be aesthetically pleasing;
 Be practical economically;
 Be environmentally acceptable
The most important requirement of a material
used in civil engineering structures is that the
material be 1.) able to carry the prescribed
loads; in other words, the material should
have adequate strength. Concrete used in a
foundation able to carry the load from the
superstructure and transfer it to the ground
below without causing settlementshould be. A
wood beam supporting a timber floor should
be strong enough to transfer this load to the
supporting walls.
Strength is a generic term that means different
things in different applications. But no matter
how the load is applied, all materials are
required to carry it safely.
2. To satisfy serviceability requirements such as
deformation limits, durability, performance
characteristics, and adaptability. Typically,
serviceability implies satisfactory performance
in all times. Recorded data of performance in
previous applications, laboratory test results,
and established construction needs will help
to assess the serviceability aspects of a material.
In general, a material should be able to satisfy
all functional aspects pertaining to a specific
job.
3. Materials are sometimes selected based solely
on appearance. Although most nonstructural
materials such as floor coverings, paints, doors
and windows are chosen based on aesthetic
requirements, the same demand also exists in
some structural materials.
 The type of masonry for a public building may
depend on how the finished surface looks. A
concrete surface may be given different finishes
based on architectural appeal. The material for
exterior finish of a residential building (i.e.
stucco, siding, etc.) maybe based on the
appearance.
4.) The cost of economical constraints. A typical
residential building in the United States has
walls, floors, and roof, all using wood or wood
products. But the same building in Mexico,
India
or Saudi Arabia is generally built using masonry
walls, concrete floor, and concrete roof. The
choice, in addition to some environmental
factors, is based primarily on cost. In all places,
the selection of appropriate building materials is
driven by economic constraints, which depend
on local availability of material on training and
on duration of construction.
5.) Environmental compatibility of a material is
gaining importance in the selection process. A
construction material should satisfy all strength,
serviceability, and architectural requirements,
 and at the same time must not cause
environmental problem. Cement dust
produced from a batch plant or cement plant
may be carried by wind and cause hazardous
living conditions to adjacent residents.
Pollution aspects of construction materials
should be assessed in any situation, although
most common materials of construction are
known to be environmentally compatible.
 Standards
To guarantee satisfactory performance from any
material, all materials should satisfy a
minimum of quality and product standards.
The methods of application of these materials
should followed standard procedures.
To bring in more uniformity in materials,
methods of production, application,
inspection, and testing, many organizations
have developed standards for materials, testing,
and inspection.
Over the years these guidelines have gone
through a number of revisions and updated,
to these materials standards, there exist
specifications for application of various
materials.
Standards represent efforts by organizations –
private, government, or voluntary – to
agree on a common procedure of goal.
In the United States there are thousands of
standards developed by various groups and
recognized by many user agencies. Some
prominent organizations that are involved
in the development of product and use
standards for some common materials:
1. American National Standards Institutes (ANSI,
1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018),
2.National Forest Products Association (NFPA,
1619 Massachusetts Avenue N. W.,
Washington, DC 20036),
3. Portland Cement Association (PCA, Old
Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60076),
4. American Concrete Institute (ACI, P.O. Box
19150, Redford Station, Detroit, MI 48219),
 5. American Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC, 400 N Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL
60611),
6. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI, 1000
16th Street, N. W., Washington, DC 20036),
7. Brick Institute of America (BIA, 1750 Old
Meadow Road, McLean, VA 22102).
8. American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA
19103, established 1898)
 Most local country and city agencies, state
agencies, defense organizations, and private
users groups have developed independent
standards and specifications.
The ASTM are of great importance to anyone
interested in the use and testing of materials.
The material standards include definitions,
formulation of materials specifications, and
recommendations on construction practices.
The testing standards show the development
and description of testing procedures.
End of Chapter I