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Computer Security: Principles and Practice

Fourth Edition

Chapter 2

Cryptographic Tools

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Encryption for Confidentiality

Encryption Methods

 Encryption: The universal technique for providing confidentiality for transmitted or stored data
 Two main types of encryptions:
 Symmetric (aka Private Key, or single-key Encryption)
 Asymmetric (aka Public Key, or two-key Encryption)

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Symmetric Encryption
Symmetric Encryption

 Also referred to as conventional encryption or single-key encryption

 Two requirements for secure use:
 Need a strong encryption algorithm
 Sender and receiver must have obtained copies of the secret key in a secure fashion and
must keep the key secure

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Simplified Model of Symmetric Encryption

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Attacking Symmetric Encryption

Cryptanalytic Attacks Brute-Force Attacks

• Rely on: • Try all possible keys on some

ciphertext until an intelligible
– Nature of the algorithm
translation into plaintext is obtained
– Some knowledge of the general
– On average half of all possible
characteristics of the plaintext
keys must be tried to achieve
– Some sample plaintext-ciphertext pairs success
• If successful, all future and past messages
encrypted with that key are compromised
Comparison of 3 Popular Symmetric EncryptionAlgorithms
Blank

DES Triple DES AES

Plaintext block size (bits) 64 (8B) 64 (8B) 128
Ciphertext block size (bits) 64 (8B) 64 (8B) 128
Key size (bits) 56 (7B) 112 (14B) or 168 (21B) 128, 192, or 256

DES = Data Encryption Standard

AES = Advanced Encryption Standard

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Data Encryption Standard (DES)

 In the past, it was the most widely used encryption scheme

 Referred to as the Data Encryption Algorithm (DEA)
 Uses 64-bit plaintext block and 56 bit key to produce a 64-bit ciphertext block
 Strength concerns:
 Concerns about the algorithm itself
 DES is the most studied encryption algorithm in existence
 Concerns about the use of a 56-bit key (relatively short)
 The speed of commercial off-the-shelf processors makes this key length woefully
inadequate

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Average Time Required for Exhaustive Key Search
Key Size (bits) Cipher Number of Alternative Keys Time Required at Time Required at
109 decryptions /  s
10 to the ninth power decryptions per microseconds 10 to the 13 power decryptions per microseconds

1013 decryptions /  s

56 DES 256  7.2  1016

2 to the 56 power approximately equals 7.2 times 10 to the 16 power

255  s  1.125 years 2 to the 55 power microseconds = 1.125 years

1 hour

128 AES 2128  3.4  1038

2 to the 128 power approximately equals 3.4 times 10 to the 38 power

2127  s  5.3  1021 years

2 to the 127 power microseconds = 5.3 times 10 to the 21 power years

5.3  1017 years5.3 times 10 to the 17 power years

168 Triple DES 2168  3.7  1050

2 to the 168 power approximately equals 3.7 times 10 to the 50 power

2167  s  5.8  1033 years

2 to the 167 power microseconds = 5.8 times 10 to the 33 power years

5.8  1029 years5.8 times 10 to the 29 power years

192 AES 2192  6.3  1057

2 to the 192 power approximately equals 6.3 times 10 to the 57 power

2191  s  9.8  10 40 years

2 to the 191 power microseconds = 9.8 times 10 to the 40 power years

9.8  1036 years9.8 times 10 to the 36 power years

256 AES 2256  1.2  1077

2 to the 256 power approximately equals 1.2 times 10 to the 77 power

2255  s  1.8  1060 years

2 to the 255 power microseconds = 1.8 times 10 to the 60 power years 1.8  1056 years1.8 times 10 to the 56 power years

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Triple DES (3DES)

 Repeats basic DES algorithm 3 times using either two or three unique keys
 DESk3(DESk2(DESk1(Plaintext))) or DESk1(DESk2(DESk1(Plaintext)))
 Attractions:
 168-bit key (3x56bit) length overcomes the vulnerability to brute-force attack of DES
 Underlying encryption algorithm is still D ES
 Drawbacks:
 Algorithm is slow in software
 Uses a 64-bit block size for plaintext

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Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

 Needed a replacement for 3DES

 3DES was not reasonable for long term use
 NIST called for proposals for a new AES in 1997
 Should have a security strength equal to or better than 3DES
 Significantly improved efficiency
 Symmetric block cipher
 128-bit data and 128/192/256-bit keys

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Block Cipher – Encryption of large data

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Practical Security Issues

 Typically, symmetric encryption is applied to a unit of data larger than a single 64-bit or
128-bit block
 Electronic CodeBook (ECB) mode is the simplest approach to multiple-block encryption
 Each block of plaintext is encrypted using the same key
 Cryptanalysts may be able to exploit regularities in the plaintext
 Modes of operation
 Alternative techniques developed
 to increase the security of symmetric block encryption for large sequences

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ECB Problem

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Alternative Mode : CBC

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Block & Stream Ciphers

 Block Cipher
 Processes the input one block at a time
 Produces an output block for each input block
 Can reuse keys
 More common
 Stream Cipher
 Processes the input elements continuously
 Primary advantage is that they are almost always
faster and use far less code
 Encrypts plaintext one byte at a time
 Pseudorandom stream is one that is unpredictable
unless you know the input key

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Message Authentication
Message Authentication

 Protects against active attacks to Integrity

 Verifies received message is authentic
1. Contents have not been altered
2. From authentic source
3. Timely and in correct sequence
 Can use conventional encryption
 Only sender and receiver share a key

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Message Authentication Without Confidentiality

 Message encryption does not provide authentication

 It is possible to combine authentication and confidentiality in a single algorithm by encrypting a
message plus its authentication tag
 Typically authentication is provided as a separate function from encryption
 Examples of situations authentication without confidentiality:
 Broadcasting same message to many destinations
 Authentication of a software in plaintext is an attractive service

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Hash Functions
 Secure Hash Function Properties

 Can be applied to a block of data of any size

 Produces a fixed-length output

  Hash(plaintext) is relatively easy to compute for any given x

 Must be One-way Function
 If h = H(x), given h, computationally must be infeasible to find x
 Collision resistant or strong collision resistance
 Computationally infeasible to find any pair (x, y) such that
y  x such that H( y )  H( x )

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Security of Hash Functions

 There are two approaches to attacking a secure hash function:

 Cryptanalysis
 Exploit logical weaknesses in the algorithm
 Brute-force attack
 Strength of hash function depends solely on the length of the hash code produced by the
algorithm
 SHA most widely used hash algorithm (SHA2 and SHA3 newer versions)
 Application Examples of hash functions:
 Passwords
 Hash of a password is stored by an operating system
 Intrusion detection
 Store Hash(File) for each file on a system and secure the hash values
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Integrity and Authentication

Authentication by Message Authentication Code (M AC)

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Message Authentication Using a One-Way Hash Function

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Public-Key Encryption
(aka Asymmetric)
Public-Key Encryption Structure

 Publicly proposed by Diffie and Hellman in 1976

 Based on mathematical functions
 Asymmetric
 Uses two separate keys
 Public key and private key
 Public Key is made public and not confidential
 Private Key private and secret
 Some form of protocol is needed for distribution of the key

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Public-Key Cryptography (1 of 2)

 Plaintext
 Readable message or data that
is fed into the algorithm as
input
 Encryption algorithm (e.g., RSA)
 Performs transformations on
the plaintext
 Public and private key
 Pair of keys, one for
encryption, one for decryption
 Ciphertext
 Scrambled message produced
as output
 Decryption key
 Produces the original plaintext

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Public-Key Cryptography (2 of 2)
 Sender encrypts data using his/her own private key
 Receiver decrypts data using sender’s public key

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Applications for Public-Key Cryptosystems
Symmetric Key Encryption of Secret
Algorithm Digital Signature Distribution Keys
RSA Yes Yes Yes
Diffie–Hellman No Yes No
DSS Yes No No
Elliptic Curve Yes Yes Yes

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Requirements for Public-Key Cryptosystems

 Useful if either key  Computationally easy to create key

can be used for pairs
each role
 Computationally easy
encrypt knowing
 Computationally public key
infeasible to
recover original  Computationally easy
message decrypt knowing
private key

 Computationally infeasible to
find private key from public key
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Asymmetric Encryption Algorithms

 RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman)

 Developed in 1977
 Most widely accepted and implemented approach to public-key encryption
 Block cipher in which the plaintext and ciphertext are
 Digital Signature Standard (DSS)
 Provides only a digital signature function with S HA-1
 Cannot be used for encryption or key exchange
 Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
 Security like RSA, but with much smaller keys

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Digital Signatures
Digital Signatures

 NIST FIPS PUB 186-4 defines a digital signature as:

 ”The result of a cryptographic transformation of data that, when properly implemented,
provides a mechanism for verifying origin authentication, data integrity and signatory non-
repudiation.”
 Thus, a digital signature is a data-dependent bit pattern, generated by an agent as a function of a
file, message, or other form of data block
 FIPS 186-4 specifies the use of one of three digital signature algorithms:
 Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)
 RSA Digital Signature Algorithm
 Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA)

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Digital Signature Process

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Digital Certificates
Public-Key Certificate Use

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Digital Envelopes

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Random Number Generators

Random Numbers

Usage Examples:
 Keys for public-key algorithms
 Stream key for symmetric stream cipher
 Symmetric key for use as a temporary session key
 Creating a digital envelope
 Handshaking to prevent replay attacks

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Random Number Requirements

Randomness Criteria:
 Unpredictability
 Frequency of occurrence of the numbers statistically should be approximately the same
 Independence
 No one value in the sequence can be inferred from the others

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Random Vs. Pseudorandom

 Pseudorandom numbers are:

 Generated by use of algorithmic techniques
 Algorithms are deterministic so generated numbers are not statistically random
 Likely to be predictable
 True random number generator (TRNG):
 Use of a non-deterministic source to produce randomness
 Most operate by measuring unpredictable natural processes
 e.g., radiation, gas discharge, leaky capacitors
 Increasingly provided on modern processors

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Practical Application: Encryption of Stored Data

 Encryption common to transmitted data, less common for stored data

 There is often little protection beyond domain authentication and operating system access
controls
 Data are archived for indefinite periods
 Even though erased, until disk sectors are reused data are recoverable
 Approaches to encrypt stored data:
 Use a commercially available encryption package (BitLocker on Windows)
 Central Back-end Storage appliance
 Library based tape encryption
 Background laptop/PC data encryption

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Summary (1 of 2)

 Confidentiality with symmetric encryption

 Symmetric encryption
 Symmetric block encryption algorithms
 Stream ciphers
 Message authentication and hash functions
 Authentication using symmetric encryption
 Message authentication without message encryption
 Secure hash functions
 Other applications of hash functions
 Random and pseudorandom numbers
 The use of random numbers
 Random versus pseudorandom
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Summary (2 of 2)

 Public-key encryption
 Structure
 Applications for public-key cryptosystems
 Requirements for public-key cryptography
 Asymmetric encryption algorithms
 Digital signatures and key management
 Digital signature
 Public-key certificates
 Symmetric key exchange using public-key encryption
 Digital envelopes
 Practical Application: Encryption of Stored Data

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