Lesson 1

THE BINOMIAL
THEOREM (1)

Prof. Hany Abdel-Malek

 CONTENTS
• Case of positive integer power
• Taylor’s Expansion
• Expansion for any real power
• Applications
General Term
Approximation of roots
Sum of Series
• Multinomials
The Case of Positive Integer Power

n n n n 2
(1 + x) = C + C x + C x + 
0 1 2
n r n n
+ C x ++ C x
r n

n n! n n
C =
r C =C0 n
r! (n − r)!
n n n+1
C +Cr r −1 =C
r
Example
4 4 4 2
(1 − 3x) = 1 + C (−3x) + C (−3x)
1 2
4 3 4 4
+ C (−3x) + C (−3x)
3 4

4•3 2
= 1 + 4(−3x) + (−3x)
2 •1
4•3•2 3 4
+ (−3x) + (−3x)
3 •2 •1
2 3 4
= 1 − 12 x + 54 x − 108 x + 81x
Taylor’s Expansion (Maclaurin)

f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2
f(x) = f(0) + x+ x +
1! 2!
(r)
f (0) r
+ x +
r!
The function is expanded in terms of its
value and derivatives at a point ( it is x = 0 in
the expansion above)
Case of any power n
f(x) = (1 + x)n
f ′(x) = n(1 + x)n−1
f ′′(x) = n(n - 1)(1 + x)n-2
f ′′′(x) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)(1 + x)n-3

f (r)(x) = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − r + 1)(1 + x)n−r

f(0) = 1
f ′(0) = n
f ′′(0) = n(n - 1)
f ′′′(0) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)

f (r) (0) = n(n −1)(n − 2)(n − r +1)
 Substituting in Taylor’s expansion

n n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x) = 1 + x + x + x +
1! 2! 3!
n(n − 1)(n − r + 1) r
+ x +
r!
Remark: It is an infinite expansion

Condition for the

convergence of the x <1
expansion
Example

Find the first four terms and the condition

for convergence for:

−4
(i) (1 + 2x)
1/2
(ii) (x + 4)
-3
(iii) (3x + 4) 2
 (i) (1 + 2x)−4

−4 (−4)(−5)
(1 + 2x) = 1 + (−4)(2x) + (2x)2
2!
(−4)(−5)(−6)
+ (2x)3 + 
3!
= 1 - 8x + 40x 2 − 160 x 3 + 

Condition for the 2x < 1

convergence of the − 1 < 2x < 1
expansion 1
− <x<
1
2 2
 1
(ii) (x + 4) 2

1
1 1
 x 2
(x + 4) = (4) 1 + 
2 2

 4
  1  1   1  1  3  
   −  2   −  −  3 
1  x   2  2   x   2   2   2   x 
= 2 1 +   +   +   + 
 24 2 •1 4 3 •2 •1 4 
 
 

Condition for the x

<1
convergence of the 4
expansion −4< x <4
 -3
(iii) (3x + 4) 2

3
3 3 −
− −  3x  2
(3x + 4) 2
= (4)  1 +
2

 4 
  3  5   3  5  7  
  −   −  2  −   −   −  3 
 3   3x   2   2   3x   2   2   2   3x 
= (2) 1 +  −  
−3
+   +   + 
  2  4  2•1  4  3•2•1  4  
 
 
3
− 1 9 135 2 945 3 
(3x + 4) 2
= 1 − x + x − x + 
8 4 128 1024 
1 9 135 2 945 3
= − x+ x − x +
8 64 1024 8192
3x
Condition for the convergence of 4
<1

the expansion −
4
<x<
4
3 3
Frequently Used Examples
1
(i) = (1 + x)−1
1+ x
−1 (−1)(−2) 2
=1+ x+ x
1! 2!
(−1)(−2)(−3) 3
+ x +
3!
1
∴ = (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x 3 + 
1+ x
+ (-1)r x r + 
Thus the coefficient of xn for any n can be
stated directly from the general term
 For example , coefficient of x100 is +1
while the coefficient of x55 is -1

A comparison with the sum of the infinite

geometric series
2 3
1− x + x − x +
In which the first term a=1 and the base r = -x
The sum is given by
2 a
3 1
1− x + x − x += =
1−r 1+ x
 1 −1
(ii) = (1 − x)
1- x
−1 (−1)(−2) 2
=1+ (− x) + (− x)
1! 2!
(−1)(−2)(−3) 3
+ (− x) + 
3!
1
∴ = (1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x 3 +  + x r + 
1− x
Alternatively: replace x by –x in the previous
example
 1 −2
(iii) 2
= (1 + x)
(1 + x)
−2 (−2)(−3) 2
=1+ x+ x
1! 2!
(−2)(−3)(−4) 3
+ x +
3!
1 2 3
∴ 2
= 1 − 2 x + 3x − 4 x + 
(1 + x)
r r
+ (-1) (r + 1)x + 
e.g. coefficient of x100 is +101 while the
coefficient of x55 is -56
 1 −2
(iv) 2
= (1 − x)
(1 − x)
−2 (−2)(−3) 2
=1+ (− x) + (− x)
1! 2!
(−2)(−3)(−4) 3
+ (− x) + 
3!
1 2 3
∴ 2
= 1 + 2 x + 3 x + 4 x +
(1 − x)
+ (r + 1)x r + 
Which can be also obtained from the previous
example by replacing x by –x
Finding the general term (Coefficient
of xn )

Example:
Find the expansion and its condition for
convergence of
2
2 + x 
 
2 − x 
Hence find the coefficient of xn
 2 2 −2
2 + x   x  x
  = 1 +  1 − 
2 − x   2  2
2
 x  2
x  x 
=
1 + x + 4 

1 + 2 2  + 3 2 
     
x 
r

+  + (r +1)  + 
2  


The condition for convergence -2< x < 2

In order to find the coefficient of xn , the

product of the two brackets is considered
 x 
2
x x
2
x  r

1 + x + 1 + 2  + 3  +  + (r + 1)  + 

 4  2 2 2 


×x n −2 × x n−1

× xn

n n−1 n−2
n 1 1 1 1
Coeff.x = (1)(n + 1)  + (1)(n)  +  (n − 1) 
2 2 4 2
n n
1 1
Coeff.x =   ((n + 1) + 2n + (n − 1)) = 4n 
n

2 2
This expression is valid only for n > 2 since we have
considered all terms up to x2 in the first bracket
 For the cases n = 0 and n = 1 , not all the terms
in the first bracket are considered
 x 
2
x
2
x
r
x 
1 + x + 1 + 2  + 3  +  + (r + 1)  + 
 4  2 2 2 


Coeff. x 0 = (1)(1) = 1
 2
x  x
2
x
r
x 
1 + x + 1 + 2  + 3  +  + (r + 1)  + 
 4  2 2 2 


Coeff. x1 = (1)(1) + (1)(1) = 2

Example:
Find the first six terms in the expansion of
1 − 3x
2
1+ x + x
Also find the coefficient of xn
Solution:
1 − 3x 1 − 3x 1− x
Q= 2
= 2
•
1+ x + x 1+ x + x 1− x
1 − 4 x + 3x 2
=
(1 − x 3 )
 Q=
1 − 4 x + 3x 2
3
(1 − x )
= 1 − 4 x (
+ 3 x 2
)
(1 − x 3 −1
)

( )(
= 1 − 4x + 3x 2 1 + x 3 + (x 3 )2 + (x 3 )3 + 
)
+ (x 3 )r + 
Q = 1 − 4 x + 3x 2 + x 3 − 4 x 4 + 3x 5 + 
Coeff. x 3r = 1
Coeff. x 3r +1 = −4
3r + 2
Coeff. x =3
The value of n can be one of three cases:
n= = 3r , n = 3r + 1 , n = 3r +2
e.g. Coeff. x100= -4 since 100=3(33)+1
Coeff. x50 = 3 since 50=3(16)+2
Example:
Find the first six terms in the expansion of
1− x
(1 + x + x2 )2

Also find the coefficient of xn

Solution:
2
1−x 1− x 1 − x 
Q= 2 2
= 2 2
• 
(1 + x + x ) (1 + x + x )  1 − x 
1 − 3x + 3x 2 − x 3
=
(1 − x 3 )2
 ( )
Q = 1 − 3x + 3x2 − x 3 (1 − x 3 )−2
= (1 − 3x + 3x 2
+ x3 )(1 + 2x 3
+ 3(x 3 )2 + 4(x 3 )3
+  + (r + 1)(x 3 )r +  )
2 3 4 5
Q = 1 − 3 x + 3x + x − 6 x + 6 x + 
Coeff. x 3r = (1)(r + 1) + (−1)(r) = 1
Coeff. x 3r +1 = (−3)(r + 1) = −3r − 3
Coeff. x 3r +2 = (3)(r + 1) = 3r + 3
Notice that the case of n is a multiple of 3 can be
obtained by considering the first and last terms
of the first bracket