Hearing and equilibrium

Chapter 10 in Silverthorn’s “Human Physiology – an integrated approach”

LEI108G
Francois Singh
2023
Hearing and equilibrium
What is hearing?
The ear is the specialised organ for hearing

• External ear
 outer ear/pinna: varies in shape depending on
species.
 ear canal: sealed by tympanic membrane.

• Middle ear
 Air-filled cavity.
 connected to pharynx through Eustachian tube.
 3 small bones conduct sound:
 malleus (hammer)
 incus (anvil)
 stapes (stirrup)

• Inner ear
 liquid-filled
 separated from middle ear by two membranous
discs: oval and round window
 Vestibular apparatus
 Cochlea contains receptors for hearing
Hearing and equilibrium
What is hearing?

Hearing is our perception of energy carried by sound waves

• Sound waves are composed by regions of compression and regions

of rarefaction.

• Sound is our brain´s interpretation of the

• Frequency (Hz).

• Amplitude (dB).

• Duration of sound waves.

Hearing and equilibrium
What is hearing?

• Frequency  pitch of a sound

 measured in hertz (Hz) = waves per second.
 Range: 20 to 20 000 Hz.
Most sensitive around 1000-3000 Hz.
 Low frequency = low pitch sound.
rumbling of distant thunder.
 High frequency = high pitch sound.
Fingernails on a blackboard.

• Amplitude  Loudness
 Measured in decibels (dB).
 Logarithmic scale: each 10 dB increase represents a 10-fold
increase in intensity.
 Conversation = anout 60 dB
 Sounds above 80 dB can damage receptors of the ear.

• Timbre  Quality
 Determined by overtones.
 If you play the same note on different instruments, the base
frequency will still be the same but it will not sound the same.
Hearing and equilibrium
How do noise canceling headphones work?
Hearing and equilibrium
Sound transduction

Multistep process

• Auditory bones amplify the vibrations of

the eardrum.

• It is harder for sound waves to travel

through the fluid-filled inner ear than air.
 need to be amplified.

• Waves push on the flexible membranes of

the cochlear ducts and bend sensory hair
cells.
Hearing and equilibrium
The cochlea

The cochlea is composed of three parallel fluid-filled channels

• Vestibular duct

• Cochlear duct

• Tympanic duct

• Vestibular and tympanic duct are continuous with each-other.

 connected at the tip of the cochlea by the Helicotrema.

• The fluid in the vestibular and tympanic ducts is similar as

plasma.
 Perilymph.

• Cochlear duct is filled with a fluid more similar to intracellular

fluid.
 Endolymph
Hearing and equilibrium
The cochlea

Organ of Corti

• Located in the cochlear duct.

• Four rows of hair cell receptors + support cells.

• Sits on the basilar membrane.

• Partially covered by the tectorial membrane.

• Both are flexible and move in response to fluid waves.

• Movements of membranes will move the cilia on hair cells.

Hearing and equilibrium
The cochlea

Hair cells

• Vibrate due to sound waves.

 sit on the basilar membrane and above by
the tectorial membrane

• The deflection opens a K+ ion channel and

the hair cell depolarises.

• Opens a voltage-gated Ca2+ channel

 More Ca2+ flows into the cell.

• More neurotransmitter is released.

 higher rate of action potentials in adjacent
neuron.
 Electrical impulse travels through the
nervous system.
Hearing and equilibrium
How do we tell the difference between frequency, volume and overtones?

• Coding for pitch is the function of the basilar

membrane.

• Stiff and narrow near attachment.

• Flexible and wide at distal end.

• Low frequency waves

 create maximal displacement at distal end.

• High frequency waves

 create maximal displacement close to oval
window.

• Spatial coding for frequency.

• The louder the noise, the more rapidly the neurons

fire.
Hearing and equilibrium
Loss of hair cells

• If a person is exposed to high volumes for a

long time hair cells can be damaged or lost.

• Hearing deteriorates with age.

• Noise can speed up the process.

Hearing and equilibrium
Auditory pathways

• The cochlear nerve is a branch of cranial nerve VIII.

• Primary auditory neurons project to the cochlear

nuclei in the medulla oblongata.

• Secondary sensory neurons project to two higher

nuclei.

• Then synapse in the midbrain and thalamus.

• Ascending tracts project to the auditory cortex.

Hearing and equilibrium
How do we know where sound is coming from?

• Sound travels to the right and left ear at slightly

different times.

• The brain uses the information to calculate location.

Hearing and equilibrium
What is equilibrium?

• State of balance.

• Dynamic component.
 Tells us about our movement through space.

• Static component.
 tells us if our head is not in its upright position.
Hearing and equilibrium
Perception of movement and position in the inner ear

The vestibular apparatus is composed by:

• Three semicircular canals.

• Otolith organs:
• Utricle
• Saccule
Hearing and equilibrium
Perception of movement and position in the inner ear

The semicircular canals

• Filled with fluid.

• Lie in three different planes.

 can sense rotational acceleration in 3
dimensions.
Hearing and equilibrium
Perception of movement and position in the inner ear

• When we turn our head to the side:

• Fluid moves in the horizontal canal and

pushes the cupula and the hairs flex.

• When the hair flexes in one direction,

the hair cell depolarises.

• When it flexes in the other direction, it

hyperpolarises.

 Conversion into electrical impulses.

Hearing and equilibrium
Other parts of the the inner ear

Otolith organs

• Utricle

• Saccule

• Their role is to:

• sense linear acceleration.

• Feeling how the head turns (by gravity).

Hearing and equilibrium
Other parts of the inner ear

Sensory structure of otolith organs = Maculae

• Hair cells.

• Gelatinous mass.
 Otolith membrane

• Calcium carbonate and protein particles.

 Otolith.
Oto = ear ; lith = stone

• If gravity or acceleration makes the otolith

slide, the gelatinous membrane will slide with
them.
 Bends the hair cells.
Hearing and equilibrium
Other parts of the inner ear

Function of otolith organs

• Utricle

• Horizontal linear acceleration.

Forward/backward head tilt.
Acceleration of a car.

• Saccule

• Vertical linear acceleration.

Change of position: Standing  sitting.
Acceleration of an elevator.
Hearing and equilibrium
Functions combined

• Semicircular canals.

 Rotational acceleration.

• Otolith organs

 Head position.

 Linear acceleration
(in a vertical or horizontal plane).
Hearing and equilibrium
Functions combined

• Signaling of the vestibulocochlear nerve

to the brain

 Brainstem

 Cerebellum

 Thalamus

 Cerebral cortex
Hearing and equilibrium
Inner ear helps with

• Maintaining balance and posture

• Control of eye muscles.

 we can look at the same object when the head moves

• perception of movement and position.

• Other sensory information also contributes to these purposes:

• Vision.
 it is easier for us to understand a situation when our eyes are open.

• Sensory organs in the skin.

 pressure sensors in the soles of our feet, which tell us how hard we step on one foot.

• Joints and muscles.

 How long the muscles are and what position the joints are in.