Unit 5: Data

Collection and
Quality

RHC 300
J Mahapane
INFO
Lecture Date
Lecture 1: Data collection 25/7/2023

Lecture 2: Data collection 01/8/2023

Lecture 3: Data quality 08/8/2023

• Lecture venue & time: HWS-North Room 3-60

• MCQs = 10 questions for 10 marks (Available on

click-up from 08/8/2023 to 11/8/2023 @ 23:59)
Objectives
Research Data

●Data → Is a raw and unorganized fact that required to be processed to make

it meaningful. Data comprises facts, observations, perceptions numbers,
characters, symbols, image, etc
●Research data → Refer to any information collected, stored, and processed
to produce and validate original research results.
Why is Data Important?
 Types Data

Primary data Secondary data Qualitative data Quantitative data

• Data which have • Data used when a

• Data collected already been Data describes researcher is trying
collected by qualities or to quantify a
afresh and for
someone else characteristics, problem ("what" or
the first time, and
and have already frequently appears "how many" aspects
thus happen to
passed through in narrative form. of a research
be original in
the statistical (“Why" aspects of a question). This data
character
process. research question). can either be
counted or
compared on a
numeric scale.
Data Collection Methods in quantitative &
qualitative research

• Most methods of data collection can be used in both qualitative and

quantitative research.

• Distinction is mainly due to the restrictions on flexibility, structure,

sequential order, depth and freedom that a researcher has in their
use during the research process.
 Data Collection Methods in quantitative &
qualitative research
Data captured: Structured Data captured: Unstructured
data collection e.g. data collection

Qualitative Data Collection

Quantitative Data Collection

Observation,
Questions: Predetermined interview Questions: Developed during
before data collection data collection

Data recording: Categorical, Data recording: Descriptive,

quantitative form, scale narrative

Data analysis: Categorical, Data analysis: Descriptive

numerical (statistical
procedure) Communicate results:
Descriptive manner
Communicate results:
Analytical manner
× √
Data Collection

●Data collection → The process of gathering and

measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate
outcomes
The Data-Collection Process
● Researcher approaches in answering the research questions.

● Audit trail with clear and specific explanation on how data were
collected, how the results were derived and rationale for the
selected method
Data-Collection Plan

What?

How?
Data collection

Who?

Where?

When?
Data Collection Methods

● None of the methods of data collection methods provides

100 % accurate and reliable information.
The choice data collection method:

● Choice of a method depends upon the purpose of the study, the

resources available and the skills of the researcher.

● Socioeconomic-demographic characteristics of the population

(E.g. Education level, ethnic background, age etc.)

● The way the purpose and relevance of the study are explained to
potential respondents (e.g. questionnaire vs interview)
Primary Sources:
Data-collection Methods = Techniques

• Frequently used by healthcare professionals include

observation, self-report and physiological
methods.
Observation Technique
 Observation

Structured Observation
• Specifying in advance the behaviours or events to be observed and how
they will be recorded, as well as preparing forms (e.g. checklists,
categorisation systems and rating scales) for record-keeping.
• Common in Quantitative studies

Unstructured Observation

• The researcher attempts to describe events or behaviours

as they occur, with no preconceived ideas of what they will
see.
• Collection of descriptive information which is analysed
qualitatively.
Observation : Degree/Levels of Researcher
Involvement
●The primary methods (2): Timing of observations

1. Time sampling → Observing events during specified

times, period (random or predetermined)
2. Event sampling → Observing an entire event (have
knowledge concerning the occurrence of events, or be in
a position to wait for that occurrence)
Advantages of the Observation ● Provides depth and variety of information compared to
other data collection techniques.
● The technique is flexible applicable to both experimental
and non-experimental designs, as well as in laboratory
and field studies

Disadvantages of the Observation ● Reactions/change in behaviour of the observed when

they are aware of being observed.
● There is the possibility of incomplete observation and/or
recording
● Observation is time-consuming and can be costly,
particularly when the observers have to undergo
training.
● Data obtained through observation are vulnerable to
bias and distortion.
Self-Report Techniques
● Participants answer the questions about the study variable
directly.
● The study seek to discover the participants thoughts, perceptions,
attitudes, beliefs, feelings, motives, plans, experiences,
knowledge levels and memories.

●Self-report Techniques:

1. Questionnaires,
2. Interviews and
3. Scales (Lecture 2)
Self-Report Instruments:
Questionnaires

• A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the

answers to which are recorded by respondents.

• Questionnaire process, respondents writes

down answers in response to questions in a
printed doc. (Importance of a well designed
questionnaire)
Questionnaires

●Each aspect of the questionnaire can influence respondents’

replies.

●The researcher must pay careful attention to the development and

construction of the questionnaire.
A well designed questionnaire:

• Clear, easy to understand and complete by the respondent

• Easy to administer and score by the researcher
• Neat in appearance & grammatically correct, no typing errors.
• Not cluttered: Well spaced questions and surrounded by
adequate margins
Questionnaire administering:

o Hand-delivered,

o Via electronic means:

● Online surveys (email, post and fax)
● Web-based surveys are inexpensive and can reach a
large population.

● Given in groups, or administered one-on-one,.

Advantages of a Questionnaire ● It is less expensive
● It offers greater anonymity.

Disadvantages of a Questionnaire • Application is limited

• A response cannot be
supplemented with other
information.
• Response rate is low.
• There is a self-selecting bias
• Opportunity to clarify issues is
lacking
• Spontaneous responses are not
allowed for
• The response to a question may be
influenced by the response to other
questions
• It is possible to consult others
Interviews

● Interviews obtain responses from

participant/s in face-to-face encounters,
through a telephonic conversation or by
electronic means.

● Interviews are frequently used in

exploratory and descriptive research,
and in case studies.
 Interviews classification
Structured Interviews
• Used in quantitative
research,
• Conducted face-to-face,
over the telephone
(electronic device)
• Predetermined set of
questions with same
question wording & order as
specified in the interview
schedule.
Semi-structured
• The researcher wants to
know specific information
which can be compared and
contrasted with information
gained in other interviews.
• Similar questions (interview
schedule) are asked in each
interview.
• The interview is flexible to
allow other important
information to still arise.
• Commonly used in qualitative
study
. qualitative research
Unstructured/In-depth Interview
• Non-predetermined questions
(Limited only by the research
focus).
• Questions wording &
organisation, and sometimes
even the topic, is to the
interviewer’s discretion
• The interviewer may begin
with a broad opening
question
• Probe follow-ups (elaborate)
are used to increase detailed
exploration. Applicable only to
Interview Data Capturing Instrument/Tool:

• Structured interviews → Interview schedule or a separate

coding sheet

• Semi-structured and unstructured interviews → Audio

equipment or videotapes.

• Field notes and logs are preferred recordkeeping devices

for interviews.

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• Interview schedule → Is a written list of questions uses open ended
or closed and have indications of how the interviewee should answer,
prepared for use by an interviewer in a person-to-person interaction.

• A log → Is a daily record of events and conversations that have taken

place

• Field notes may include the daily log, but tend to encompass more than
a simple list of occurrences.

• Probe follow-up → Probes are prompting questions which encourage

the interviewee to elaborate. Probe follow-ups can be used to increase
detailed exploration.
Focus group (discussion groups or
group interviews)
● Groups of about 5 to 12 people whose opinions and experiences are
requested simultaneously.

● Allows participants to share their thoughts with one another,

generate new ideas and consider a range of views before answering

● Focus groups are particularly useful in participatory and action

research where members of the community are equal participants in
planning and implementation

● Discussion is led by a moderator or facilitator

● Disadv: Some people are uncomfortable when asked to participate
in group discussions.

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Advantages of the Interview ● The interview is more appropriate for
complex situations
● It is useful for collecting in-depth
information
● Questions can be explained
● Information can be supplemented
● Interviewing has a wider application

Disadvantages of the Interview ● Interviewing is time consuming and

expensive.
● The quality of data depends:
● Upon the quality of the interaction.
● Upon the quality of the interviewer.
● The quality of data may vary when
many interviewers are used.
● The researcher may introduce his/her
bias
Questions Types/Form (Questionnaire &
Interview)
Tool/Instrument close ended
Questionnaire/Interview Possible answers are given
schedule
Questionnaire The respondent ticks the
category that best describes
the his/her answer.
Interview The investigator ticks the
category that best describes
the respondent’s answer.
Open ended
Possible responses are not
given
The respondent writes down
the answers, using own
words
Investigator records the
answers either verbatim or in
a summary
Structured, closed-ended questions Unstructured, open-ended
questions
Respondent choose from a set of
options
E.g. closed-ended questions ‘yes’ or Respondent to answer in anyway
‘no’, multiple-choice, checklist-type, they see fit
‘true’ or ‘false’, and matching The possible responses are not
questions given.
Questions Formulation Guidelines

Questions:
● Simple and short.
● Not be ‘double-barrelled, containing two questions
● Unambiguous
● Understandable
● Avoid leading questions
● Stated in affirmative manner

Exercise
The arrangement of questions in a questionnaire is
critical:

• Start with a covering letter (study’s information leaflet)

incl ethics issues
• Clear, comprehensive and concise instructions to
provide respondents with an example of the appropriate
way to respond to particular types of questions
• Group together similar questions
• Ask interesting and/or easier questions first
• Ask for sensitive information last
• Arrange questions from general topics to specific ones.
• Repeat the content of a question, formulated in different
ways, in different parts of the questionnaire.
Additional considerations:
● Questionnaire length is enough to obtain necessary information
(20-25 min)

Critical review of the drafted questionnaire:

● Others knowledgeable about instrument construction and the
content
● Non-specialist to give insight based on their knowledge of the
topic and the sample.

● Pre-testing of the questionnaire:

● A pre-test determines whether the instrument is clearly worded
and free from major biases, as well as if it is appropriate for the
type of information.
● Small sample of respondents, and revised if necessary.
THANK YOU
Data Collection to Continue…