2.

13 INPUT IMPEDANCE
Input impedance is defined as “the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals or
the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate
components of the electric to magnetic fields at a point.”

1
The antenna input impedance can be written as:

=
And
=

= radiation resistance of the antenna.

= loss resistance of the antenna.
Assuming that the antenna is attached to a generator with internal impedance then,
=

= resistance of the generator impedance.

= reactance of the generator impedance. 2
To find the amount of power delivered to for radiation and the amount dissipated in
as heat (, we do the followings:

3
The dissipated power a of the generator:

The maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when we have conjugate
matching; that is when,
=
=
In this case,

4
 It is clear that,

The power supplied by the generator conjugate matching is:

Of the power that is provided by the generator, half is dissipated as heat in the
internal resistance () of the generator and the other half is delivered to the antenna .
This only happens when we have conjugate matching. 5
Antenna in the receiving mode

Antenna and its Thevenin equivalent circuit in the receiving mode.

6
= resistance of the load impedance.
= reactance of the load impedance.
= induced voltage by the incident wave.
= load current.
The discussion for the antenna and its load in the receiving mode parallels that for the transmitting
mode, and it will not be repeated here in detail and some of the results will be summarized.
Under conjugate matching ( + = and = −) the powers delivered to , , and are given by:

7
The induced total power (collected or captured) is given by:

Similar to the transmitting mode that under conjugate matching of the total power
collected or captured ) half is delivered to the load and the other half is scattered or
reradiated through ) and dissipated as heat through ()

For lossless antenna = 0, then half of) is delivered to the load and the other half is
scattered or reradiated through ) only.

8
2.14 ANTENNA RADIATION EFFICIENCY
The conduction-dielectric efficiency ) is defined as the ratio of the power
delivered to the radiation resistance to the power delivered to and . the radiation
efficiency can be written as:

The dc resistance For a metal rod of length (l ) and uniform cross-sectional area A, is
given by:

For a very small skin depth [𝛿 = ] of the metal compared to the smallest diagonal (2b) of the
cross section of the rod, the current is confined to a thin layer near the conductor surface ,
and the high-frequency resistance () can be written in terms of surface resistanceδσ)], based
on a uniform current distribution, as:
(ohms) 9
 P: is the perimeter of the cross section of the rod (P = 2𝜋b for a circular wire of radius b).
𝜎: is the conductivity of the metal.
𝜔: is the angular frequency.
:is the permeability of free-space.
Example: A resonant half-wavelength dipole is made out of copper (𝜎 = 5.7 × S/m) wire.
Determine the conduction-dielectric (radiation) efficiency of the dipole antenna at f = 100
MHz if the radius of the wire b is 3 × λ, and the radiation resistance of the dipole is 73
ohms.
Solution:
λ = = = 3m, l= = and P = 2𝜋b = 2𝜋(3 × λ ) = 6𝜋 × λ
For a λ∕2 dipole with a sinusoidal current distribution:
= (0.5) = 0.349 ohms
𝑹𝑳 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝒍
𝑹 = .
𝟐 𝒉𝒇 𝟐 𝑷 √ 𝝎 𝝁𝒐
𝟐𝝈

Therefore, = = 0.9952 = 99.52% and (dB) = 10 (0.9952) = −0.02

1
0
2.14 ANTENNA RADIATION EFFICIENCY
The conduction-dielectric efficiency ) is defined as the ratio of the power
delivered to the radiation resistance to the power delivered to and . the radiation
efficiency can be written as:

The dc resistance For a metal rod of length (l ) and uniform cross-sectional area A, is
given by:

For a very small skin depth [𝛿 = ] of the metal compared to the smallest diagonal (2b) of the
cross section of the rod, the current is confined to a thin layer near the conductor surface ,
and the high-frequency resistance () can be written in terms of surface resistanceδσ)], based
on a uniform current distribution, as:
(ohms) 1
1
 P: is the perimeter of the cross section of the rod (P = 2𝜋b for a circular wire of radius b).
𝜎: is the conductivity of the metal.
𝜔: is the angular frequency.
:is the permeability of free-space.
Example: A resonant half-wavelength dipole is made out of copper (𝜎 = 5.7 × S/m) wire.
Determine the conduction-dielectric (radiation) efficiency of the dipole antenna at f = 100
MHz if the radius of the wire b is 3 × λ, and the radiation resistance of the dipole is 73
ohms.
Solution:
λ = = = 3m, l= = and P = 2𝜋b = 2𝜋(3 × λ ) = 6𝜋 × λ
For a λ∕2 dipole with a sinusoidal current distribution:
= (0.5) = 0.349 ohms
𝑹𝑳 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝒍
𝑹 = .
𝟐 𝒉𝒇 𝟐 𝑷 √ 𝝎 𝝁𝒐
𝟐𝝈

Therefore, = = 0.9952 = 99.52% and (dB) = 10 (0.9905) = −0.02

1
2
2.15 Antenna Vector Effective Length and Equivalent Areas
An antenna in the receiving mode, whether it is in the form of a wire, horn,
aperture, array, dielectric rod, etc., is used to capture (collect) electromagnetic
waves and to extract power from them. For each antenna, an equivalent length
and a number of equivalent areas can then be defined.
Vector Effective Length: The effective length of an antenna, is a quantity that
is used to determine the voltage induced on the open-circuit terminals of the
antenna when a wave impinges upon it. The vector effective length () for an
antenna is usually a complex vector quantity:

It is also referred to as the effective height (It is a far-field quantity). It is

related to the far-zone field radiated by the antenna, with current in its
terminals, by:
(x1) 1
3
1
4
The effective length represents the antenna in its transmitting and
receiving modes, and it is particularly useful in relating the open-circuit
voltage of receiving antennas. This relation can be expressed as:
.
where,
= open-circuit voltage at antenna terminals
= incident electric field
𝓵e = = vector effective length

1
5
Example: The far-zone field radiated by a small dipole of length l < λ∕10 and
with a triangular current distribution is given by:

Determine the vector effective length of the antenna.

Solution
According to the far-zone field radiated by the antenna, with current in its
terminals
(x1)
⇒ =

1
6
Antenna Equivalent Areas
With each antenna, we can associate a number of equivalent areas. These are
used to describe the power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a
wave impinges on it.
One of these equivalent areas is the effective area (aperture), which in a given
direction is defined as “the ratio of the available power at the terminals of a
receiving antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident on the
antenna from that direction, the wave being polarization-matched to the
antenna. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation
intensity is implied.” In equation form:

= effective area (effective aperture)

= power delivered to the load (W)
= power density of incident wave (W/)
17
Under conditions of maximum power transfer (conjugate matching), + = and
= −, the effective area:

The scattering area is defined as the equivalent area when multiplied by the
incident power density is equal to the scattered or re-radiated power. Under
conjugate matching this is written as:

18
The loss area is defined as the equivalent area, which when multiplied by the
incident power density leads to the power dissipated as heat through . Under
conjugate matching can be written as:

Finally the capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when
multiplied by the incident power density leads to the total power captured,
collected, or intercepted by the antenna. Under conjugate matching can be
written as:

Capture Area = Effective Area + Scattering Area + Loss Area 19

The aperture efficiency, , of an antenna, which is defined as the ratio of the
maximum effective area of the antenna to its physical area , or

Example:
A uniform plane wave is incident upon a very short lossless dipole (l ≪ λ).
Find the maximum effective area() assuming that the radiation resistance of
the dipole is:

, and the incident field is linearly polarized along the axis of the dipole.
Solution: For = 0, the maximum effective area becomes:

Since Rr + RL = RT
For conjugate matching 20
The induced voltage is:

VT = induced voltage on the dipole

E = electric field of incident wave
l = length of dipole
For a uniform plane wave, the incident power density can be written as:

21
2.16 Maximum Directivity and Maximum Effective Area To derive the
relationship between Directivity and Maximum effective area, let us propose the
following arrangement:

The effective areas and directivities of each are designated as , and ,.

22
If the transmitter antenna1 were isotropic, then its radiated power density at a distance R would be:

𝑷𝒕
= is the total radiated power. 𝑾 𝟎= 𝟐
𝟒 𝝅 𝑹
Due of the directive properties of the antenna, its actual density is:

And the power collected (received) by the antenna and transferred to the load would be:
𝑷𝒕
⇒ 𝒕=
𝑾 𝒕 =𝑾 𝟎 𝑫 𝟐
𝑫𝒕
𝟒𝝅 𝑹

𝑷𝒕 𝑷𝒓 𝟐
𝑷 𝒓 =𝑾 𝒕 𝑨 𝒓 = 𝟐
𝑫𝒕 𝑨 𝒓 𝑫 𝒕 𝑨𝒓 = 𝟒𝝅 𝑹
𝟒𝝅 𝑹 𝑷𝒕
23
If antenna 2 is used as a transmitter, antenna1 as a receiver, and the intervening medium is
linear, passive, and isotropic, we can write that :

From the last two equations we get:

𝑫 𝒓 𝑨𝒕 =𝑫 𝒕 𝑨𝒓
Here, we see that the Directivity of the antenna proportional directly to the effective area, i.e.,

Therefore the above equation can be written in terms of the maximum directivities and the
maximum effective areas as:

24
and: are the maximum effective areas of antenna1 and 2 respectively.
and: are the maximum directivities of antenna1 and 2 respectively.

Now, suppose that antenna1 is isotropic, then = 1 ( ) and its maximum effective
area can be expressed as:

The above last equation states that the maximum effective area of an isotropic
source is equal to the ratio of the maximum effective area to the maximum
directivity of any other source. 25
Example: let the other antenna(antenna2) be a very short (l ≪ λ) dipole whose effective area
= (0.119) , and maximum directivity 1.5, are known. Find the maximum effective area of an
isotropic source (antenna1).
Solution:
The maximum effective area of the isotropic source is:

Using the above result of the maximum effective area of the isotropic source along with the
Effective area of a small dipole, we can write: =

Or in general we can write for any antenna

26
However, if we take in to consideration, the radiation efficiency, the reflection
efficiency, and the polarization loss factor PLF, the maximum effective area
becomes:

27
2.17 Friis Transmission Equation and Radar Range Equation

In the analysis and design of radar and communications systems often require
the use of the Friis Transmission Equation and the Radar Range Equation.
A-Friis Transmission Equation: Friis Transmission Equation relates the power
received to the power transmitted between two antennas separated by a distance (R
> 2∕λ [far field region]), where D is the largest dimension of either antenna. Assume
that the transmitting antenna is initially isotropic, then its isotropic power density,
at distance R from the antenna is:

Input power at the terminals of the transmitting antenna

: Radiation efficiency of the transmitting antenna.
For a non-isotropic transmitting antenna , the power density, in the direction of 28
where is the gain and is the directivity of the transmitting antenna
in the direction of and .
The effective area of the receiving antenna is related to its efficiency and directivity
by:

29
Therefore, the amount of power collected by the receiving antenna can be written as:

Pr = Ar Wt =

So, the general expression of the ratio of the received power to the input power
including PLF and reflection efficiency can be written as:

The term is called the free-space loss factor, and it takes into account the losses due
to the spherical spreading of the energy by the antenna.
30
Example

31
B- Radar Range Equation:
Assume that the transmitted power is incident upon a target, as shown in Figure below and we
introduce a quantity known as the radar cross section or echo area (𝜎) of a target which is
defined as the area intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered isotropically,
produces at the receiver a density which is equal to that scattered by the actual target.

32
In equation form:

Where,

33
The amount of captured power by the target is obtained by multiplying the incident power
density of (Transmitter) by the radar cross section 𝜎, or in equation form:

The power captured by the target is reradiated isotropically, and the scattered power density can
be written as:

The amount of power delivered to the receiver load is given by:

where
34
The last equation can be written as the ratio of the received power to the input
power:

If we take into consideration the reflection losses and the PLF, the above equation
becomes:

For polarization-matched antennas aligned for maximum directional radiation and

reception:

35
Antenna Radar Cross Section

The radar cross section, usually referred to as RCS, is a far-field

parameter, which is used to characterize the scattering properties
of a radar target. For a target, there is:
1- Monostatic or Backscattering RCS when the transmitter and
receiver are at the same location,
2- Bistatic RCS when the transmitter and receiver are not at the
same location.

36
In general, the RCS of a target is a function of:

a- The polarization of the incident wave. b- The angle of incidence

c- The angle of observation d- The geometry of the target
e- The electrical properties of the target f- The frequency of operation.
The units of RCS of three-dimensional targets are meters squared () or
for normalized values decibels per squared meter (dBsm = 10 log
(RCS/1) or RCS per squared wavelength in decibels (RCS∕ in dB)

37
38
In designing low-observable or low-profile (stealth) targets, it is the parameter
that you attempt to minimize.
The RCS of a target can be controlled using primarily two basic methods:
1- Shaping method: Shaping is used to attempt to direct the scattered energy
toward directions other than the desired.
2-Materials method: is used to trap the incident energy within the target and to
dissipate part of the energy as heat or to direct it toward directions other than the
desired.
(Usually both methods, shaping and materials, are used together in order to optimize the
performance of a radar target.)

There are many methods of analysis to predict the RCS of a target:

1- Analytical 2-Approximate 3-Numerical methods .The methods of analysis are
often depending upon the shape, size, and material composition of the target. 39
Antennas individually are radar targets which many exhibit large radar cross
section. In many applications, antennas are mounted on the surface of other complex
targets. In such configurations, many antennas, especially aperture types (such as
waveguides, horns) become large contributors to the total RCS. Therefore, in
designing low-observable targets, the antenna type, location and contributions
become an important consideration of the overall design.
The scattering and transmitting (radiation) characteristics of an antenna are
related. In general, the electric field scattered by an antenna with a load impedance
can be expressed by:

40
(a1)

41
42
Green, expressed the field scattered by an antenna terminated with a load in a
more convenient form which allows it to be separated into the:

a- Structural scattering term b- Antenna mode scattering term

This is accomplished by assuming that the antenna is loaded with a conjugate
matched impedance (= ).
• The structural scattering term is introduced by the currents induced on the
surface of the antenna by the incident field when the antenna is conjugate-
matched, and it is independent of the load impedance.
• The antenna mode scattering term is only a function of the radiation
characteristics of the antenna, and its scattering pattern is the square of the antenna
radiation pattern.
43
It can be shown that the total radar cross section of an antenna terminated with a
load can be written as:

44
45
46
 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions

1- In the Analysis of radiation problems (Sources are specified), and then

(Fields radiated by the sources are required to be determined).
2- In the Synthesis of radiation problems (Fields are specified), and then
(Sources are required to be determined).
In the analysis procedure we introduce auxiliary functions, known as vector
potentials, which will aid in the solution of the problems:
a- (magnetic vector potential). b- (electric vector potential).
and are physically measureable quantities
and are just mathematical tools
47
 Block diagram for computing fields radiated by electric and magnetic sources.

a- The Magnetic Vector Potential for an Electric Current Source

Since the magnetic flux B is always solenoidal, i. e., then, it can be

represented as the curl of another vector:
( = A, = B and so, )
Hence, we define: ⇒
48
In conjunction with
Maxwell’s curl equation:

From the vector identity,

(C1)
49
Using Maxwell’s equation,

We get:

Substituting (Eq. C1) into the above equation we get:

(C2)

50
where,

In order to simplify (C2) we put:

Which is known as the Lorentz condition, that leads to the equation:

Therefore, (C1) becomes:

Thus, Once A is known, E and H can easily be found.

51
b- The Electric Vector Potential for a Magnetic Current Source
Although magnetic currents appear to be physically unrealizable, equivalent magnetic currents
arise when we use the volume or the surface equivalence theorems. The fields generated by a
harmonic magnetic current in a homogeneous region, with J = 0 but M≠ 0, must satisfy 𝛁 ⋅ D =
0. Therefore, can be expressed as the curl of the vector potential F by:

Using Similar steps

as that done before
for the vector potential

52
Electric and Magnetic Fields for Eelectric (J) and Magnetic (M) Current
Sources
In summary form, the procedure that can be used to find the fields is as follows:
1. Specify J and M (electric and magnetic current density sources).
2. a. Find A (due to J) using:

which is a solution of the inhomogeneous vector wave equation of A.

b. Find F (due to M) using:

which is a solution of the inhomogeneous vector wave equation of F.

R is the distance from any point in the source to the observation point. 53
The total fields are then determined by:

54
Solution of the Inhomogeneous Magnetic Vector Potential Wave Equation
To derive it, let us assume that a source with current density Jz, which in the limit is
an infinitesimal source, is placed at the origin of a x, y, z coordinate system, as
shown in the figure. Since the current density is directed along the z-axis (Jz), only
an Az component will exist. Thus we can write the vector wave equation as:

55
Systems for computing fields radiated by sources
Since in the limit the source is a point, it requires that Az is not a function of
direction (𝜃 and 𝜙). Az = Az(r) where r is the radial distance. If J = 0, then:

The solution: (outwardly travelling wave)

In the static case (𝜔 = 0, k = 0), it simplifies to:

56
In the presence of the source (Jz ≠ 0) and k = 0, the wave equation reduces to:

The solution:

Or in general,

57
58
DUALITY THEOREM
When two equations that describe the behavior of two different variables are of the
same mathematical form, their solutions will also be identical.

59
RECIPROCITY AND REACTION THEOREMS
To explain the concepts of the Reciprocity theorem let explain the
following:
We are all well familiar with the reciprocity theorem, as applied to
circuits, which states that “in any network composed of linear, bilateral,
lumped elements, if one places a constant current (voltage) generator
between two nodes (in any branch) and places a voltage (current) meter
between any other two nodes (in any other branch), makes observation
of the meter reading, then interchanges the locations of the source and
the meter, the meter reading will be unchanged".
We want now to discuss the reciprocity theorem as it applies to
electromagnetic theory. This is done best by the use of Maxwell’s
equations.
60