ORAL COMMUNICATION

IN CONTEXT
Prepared by:
Mrs. Sheena Marie Velayo-Apostol
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
a process of sharing and
conveying messages or
information from one person/s

-can be expressed through

words (verbal), actions
(nonverbal) or both at the
same time
SENDER/ SPEAKER

-is the one who initiates the message that needs to be

transmitted. S/he sends the message that may be in
different forms such as pictures, symbols, postures,
gestures, or even just a smile. After generating the
idea, s/he sends it in such a manner that can be
understood clearly by the receiver.
Message

-refers to the information intended to be

communicated by words as in speech, letters,
pictures, or symbols. It can be verbal or non-
verbal. It is the content the sender wants to
convey to the receiver.
Encoding
It is the process of expressing the idea into
appropriate medium. It may be verbal or non-
verbal. The sender may put the message into
a series of symbols, words, pictures or
gestures.
Channel
It refers the medium or passage through which
encoded message is passed to the receiver. It
may be transmitted through face-to-face
communication, telephone, radio, television,
memorandum, or computer
Receiver
-refers to whom the message is meant for. S/he plays a
significant role in the communication process like the
sender. S/he needs to comprehend the message sent.
His/her translation of the message received depends on
his/her knowledge of the subject matter of the
message, experience, and relationship with the sender.
Decoding
It means translating the encoded message
into a language that can be understood by
the receiver. After receiving the message,
the receiver interprets it and tries to
understand it.
Feedback
It refers to the response of the receiver to
the message sent to him/her by the
sender. Feedback ensures that the message
has been effectively encoded and
decoded
Noise
It is a hindrance to communication. This can take place
at any step in the entire communication process. There
are various types of noise. Examples of physical noise
are loud music, an irritating sound of an engine of a
machine, or a classmate who talks to you while the
teacher is giving a lecture.
 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Guide Questions:
1. How does
communication
start?
2. When is
communication
considered
successful?
3. When does
communication
end?

SOURCE: http://youtube.com/watch?v=q6u0AVn-NUM
 1. Aristotle’s Model of Communication

2. Shannon – Weaver’s Model of Communication

Models 3. Berlo’s Model of Communication
4. Transactional Model
of 5. Schramm Model of Communication
Communication 6. Eugene White Model of Communication

7. Helical Model of Communication

1. Aristotle’s Model of Communication

Aristotle (5 BCE), a teacher of Rhetoric and a founder of an

academy that produced good speakers, came up with the first
and earliest model of communication.
1. Aristotle’s Model of Communication

-This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal

communication. Speaker plays a very important role in public
speaking.

-To influence or persuade his audience, he must first prepare his

speech and analyze the audience before he speaks to them.

1. Aristotle’s Model of Communication
2. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication (1949)

-known as the mother of all communication models,

-it depicts communication as a linear or one-way process

consisting of five elements: a source (producer of message); a
transmitter (encoder of message into signals); a channel
(signals adapted for transmission); a receiver (decoder of
message from the signal); and a destination.
2. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication (1949)

This model, however, has been criticized for missing

one essential element in the communication process:
feedback. Without feedback, the speaker will not know
whether the receiver understands the message or not.
 Meet the Model Makers
In the late 1940s, engineer and mathematician Claude
Shannon, who worked for the Bell Telephone Company,
and scientist Warren Weaver created what they called ''A
Mathematical Theory of Communication'' in an effort to
help engineers more efficiently perform their jobs.
 Meet the Model Makers

The model was later nicknamed the Shannon-

Weaver Model of Communication after the two
men who invented it. Today, it is called by some
''The Mother of All Models,'' having become the
most popular method of communicating.
2. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication (1949)

Figure 1. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication

 3. Berlo’s Model of Communication
The Berlo’s model of communication takes
into account the emotional aspect of the
message. Berlo’s model follows the SMCR model:

S – Source

M – Message

C – Channel

R – Receiver
 3. Berlo’s Model of Communication

SOURCE: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yUGW2d6nXe0
 3. Berlo’s
Model
of
Communication
Directions: In
the Venn diagram below, show the similarities and
differences of the three communication models.

Aristotle’s
Model

Shannon-Weaver’s Berlo’s Model

Model
4. Transactional Model of Communication
It is the process of continuous change and transformation
where every component is changing such as the people, their
environments and the medium used. Due to this, it assumes
the communicators to be independent and act any way they
want. Since both sender and receiver are necessary to keep
the communication alive in transactional model, the
communicators are also interdependent to each other.
 Meet the Model Maker
Dean C. Barnlund proposed a transactional model of
communication in 1970 for basic interpersonal
communication which articulates that sending and receiving
of messages happens simultaneously between people which
is popularly known as Barlund’s Transactional Model of
Communication.
 Meet the Model Maker
The model has been further adapted and reformed
by other theorists as General Transactional Model. The
model shifted from the trend of linear model to
dynamic and two way communication model.
Figure 2. Transactional Model of Communication

Image Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Learn12.gif
4. Schramm Model of Communication

Schramm (1954) modified the Shannon-Weaver Model.

❏ What has Schramm added to the Shannon-Weaver

Model?
❏ Is the new model more comprehensive?
❏ Why do you think so?
❏ How is it different from or similar to the Transaction
Model?
 Meet the Model Maker
Wilbur Schramm, who talked about the model in his book,
The Process and Effects of Communication, adapted the
model and added the notion of field of experience, or
commonality, to the mix. Field of experience incorporates
what is mutually understood between the sender and
receiver.
 Meet the Model Maker
For his part, Schramm is considered one of the pioneers of the
mass communications field. He started the doctoral program in
mass communication at the University of Iowa, helping develop
mass communication (television, print news, and other ways to
communicate) as a university discipline.
4. Schramm Model of Communication
 5. Eugene White Model of Communication

It says that communication is circular and continuous,

without a beginning or end. His 1960 cyclical model, the
communication process is composed of eight stages-
thinking, symbolizing, expressing, transmitting, receiving,
decoding, feed-backing, monitoring, and thinking.
 5. Eugene White Model of Communication

He also points out that although one can assume that

communication begins with thinking, it can be observed
from any point in the circle. White was also the one who
introduced the concept of feedback which is a process also
known as to close the loop.
 7. Helical Model of Communication

The Helical Model of communication was

developed by Frank Dance in 1967. He thought of
communication similar to helix. Helix is a smooth
curve like a spring that goes upwards and
downwards.
Barriers to Communication
●Physical Barriers
●Psychological Barriers
●Cultural Barriers
●Linguistic Barriers
Verderber (1991) gives a similar idea of barrier when he
classifies noise into three kinds: External, Internal and
Semantic noise.
 7. Helical Model of Communication

This model presents the concept of time where

continuousness of communication process is very
important.

In helical model, communication is a dynamic

process. Communication progresses as an individual
gets older and his experience and vocabulary increases.
7. Helical Model of Communication
COMMUNICATION
BARRIERS
Physical Barriers
-are the natural or environmental condition that act as
a barrier in communication in sending the message
from sender to receiver.
1. People talking too loud.
2. Noise from a construction site
3. Loud sound of a karaoke
4. Blaring of jeepney horns
Psychological Barriers
-are called as mental barriers. These refer to
social and personal issues of a speaker towards
communicating with others.
1. trauma
2. shyness, lack of confidence
3. depression
4. fear, stage fright
Cultural Barriers

-People’s culture 1. different beliefs 2.

affect the way they traditions, and
communicate and customs 3. manners of
relate to others. dressing 4. speaking
 General Principles to Follow when Referring to Different
Groups or Categories:
1.Race and Ethnicity Racism
-is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of
a different race

2022 46
 2.Gender and Sexual Orientation
-Sexism refers to the prejudice and
discrimination based on sex or gender.

2022 47
 3.Social Class Discrimination or Classism
-is a form of prejudice against a person
or people because of their social class.

2022 48
 4.Age
-is a form of discrimination against other people
because of their age, or assuming that older people are
less physically, intellectually, or emotionally able than
the other groups. The capabilities of the younger people
should not also be underestimated.

2022 49
5.Disabilities Discrimination
-in this area often arises because of lack of
understanding and awareness.

2022 50
 Linguistic Barriers
●Because words carry denotative and connotative
meanings, they can sometimes cause confusion and
misunderstanding.
1. difference in language ;
2. accent and dialect ;
 Linguistic Barriers
●Because words carry denotative and connotative
meanings, they can sometimes cause confusion and
misunderstanding.
3. use of jargon and slang ;
4. speech defects or language impairments
 External,
Verderber
(1991) gives a
similar idea
of barrier
Internal and
when he
classifies
noise into
three kinds:
Semantic noise
 are the “sight, sound and
other stimuli that draw
people’s attention away
External from intended meaning.”
Noises
 Internal noises

-are the “thoughts and feelings that interfere with

meaning.”
1. confrontation with a friend 2. fear of
speaking in front of the class. 3. racial prejudice
Semantic noises
-are the “alternate meanings aroused by a speaker’s
symbols.” This idea means that a word may have another
meaning in the minds of the students

1. incorrect grammar
2. using excessive technical jargon
3. using idiomatic expressions
FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION TO AVOID
COMMUNICATION
BREAKDOWN
Communication Breakdown or
miscommunication
-a failure to exchange information, resulting
in a lack of communication
To become an effective communicator

-recognize these barriers that hinder

the communication process
 7Cs of Effective Communication to Avoid
Communication Breakdown
(Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center 2012)

1. Completeness

Complete communication is essential to the quality of the

communication process in general. Hence, communication should
include everything that the receiver needs to hear for him/her to
respond, react, or evaluate properly.
 7Cs of Effective Communication to Avoid
Communication Breakdown
(Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center 2012)

2. Conciseness

Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but

making it direct or straight to the point. Insignificant or redundant
information should be eliminated from the communication that will
be sent to the recipient.
 7Cs of Effective Communication to Avoid
Communication Breakdown
(Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center 2012)

3. Coherence

It is the use of transitional markers or cohesive devices in

delivering your message. This is to make your sentences
connected to one another.
 7Cs of Effective Communication to Avoid
Communication Breakdown
(Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center 2012)

4. Concreteness

Effective communication happens when the message is concrete

and supported by facts, figures, and real-life examples of
situations. In this case, the receiver is more connected to the
message conveyed.
 7Cs of Effective Communication to Avoid
Communication Breakdown
(Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center 2012)

5. Courtesy

The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting

the cultural values, and beliefs of his/her receivers. Being
courteous at all times creates a positive impact on the
audience.
 7Cs of Effective Communication to Avoid
Communication Breakdown
(Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center 2012)

6. Clearness

Clearness is communication implies the use of simple and

specific words to express ideas. It is also achieved when the
speaker focuses only on a single objective in his/her speech so
as not to confuse the audience.
 7Cs of Effective Communication to Avoid
Communication Breakdown
(Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center 2012)

7. Correctness

Correctness in grammar eliminates a negative impact on the

audience and increases the credibility and effectiveness of the
message.
 Dimensions of
Communication
(Communication breakdown or miscommunication can
lead to a total cessation of interaction. We see people
stop talking to each other because of communication
breakdown.)
 01. Formal/Informal Dimensions
Four pairs of
Dimensions 02. Oral/Written Dimensions

03. Intentional/Unintentional
Dimensions
03.
04. Verbal/Non-verbal
Dimensions
 Four pairs of Dimensions

Formal/Informal Dimensions

Formal is a term that usually means meticulous

observation of appropriateness in dress, setting, and
language, while the informal dimension is the opposite
casual approach.
 Four pairs of Dimensions

Oral/Written Dimensions

Written Dimension refers to the expression thoughts and

ideas into a written transcription while Oral Dimension is
a term referring to verbal or spoken communication.
 Four pairs of Dimensions
Intentional/Unintentional Dimensions

Intentional Dimension refers to the most basic type of

communication. Thoughts and ideas are expressed to serve its
purpose whether it is to influence, convince, or to deceive. On the
other hand, the Unintentional Dimension refers to the nonverbal
messages exhibited unconsciously by a person. Usually, these are
mannerisms, posture, emotional state, etc.
 Four pairs of Dimensions
Verbal/Non-verbal Dimensions

The verbal dimension refers to the expression of thoughts

and ideas through articulation or auditory means while
Nonverbal Dimension refers to the use of visual cues,
gestures, or any type of communication that
conveys thoughts and ideas without speaking.
 SPEECH STYLES
-Joos (1961)-
ways we communicate vary from context to
context
The way we produce sounds, our grammar,
choice of words, and intent all shape our
speech styles
 1 Intimate Style
.

Speech Styles
2 Casual Style
.
3 Consultative Style
.
4 Formal Style
.
5 Frozen Style
 Intimate style
when you are talking
to people you are close to and know very well
you share a private language with people
you are intimate with like your parents,
siblings, best friend, close friends, and/or
your “special someone”
 Intimate style
we use inside vocabulary and terms of
endearment which we do not often use in
public
we use more comfortable non-verbal
communication strategies like touching,
prolonged eye contact, higher or lower pitch,
decreased volume or extremely increased
volume depending on the situation
 Intimate style

Some examples of intimate style include:

● consulting your family regarding your
plans about college
● sharing stories with your close friends
● declaring your love for your partner
 Self-Reflection 1:
Intimate style
Recall your latest conversation with a
parent, sibling, close friend, or a loved one.
Do you remember yourself using informal
language and non-verbal communication
strategies?
 Casual Style
we use to communicate with people in a not-
so-formal set up

The people who use this style of communicating

may belong to the same sub-culture

They can be family members, classmates,

friends, loved ones, and the like.
 Casual Style

you use informal language that does not pay much

attention to grammar correctness and word choice

is often times relaxed and interactional, often

characterized by jargon, slang, contractions, and
sometimes, vulgar expressions since you often use
it with people your age or whom you consider to be
of the same level as you
 Casual Style

JARGONS are words or phrases used by a

specific group of people and which hold a
specific meaning or such group (Ex: SCORE
(in film means music; in sports &
education means points; in banking means
financial credibility).
 Casual Style

SLANG are words created by a specific group

and is often used in informal oral
communication (Ex. lit, swag, tea, woke, ship,
kudos, etc.).

CONTRACTIONS are shortened words (Ex.

ARE + NOT = aint/aren’t; IS + NOT = isn’t).
 Casual Style

Some Asian cultures like Chinese, Korean,

and Japanese use specific words to show
familial hierarchy or closeness with
people outside the family. This
contradicts practices in the
westernculture where the youth can
speak casually with parents and elders
 Consultative Style

It is semi formal and transactional in nature

and often done with a goal in mind

you must observe correct grammar and choice

of words
 Consultative Style

Some examples of contexts wherein we use

this style is between a doctor and patient,
teacher and student, restaurant crew and
customer
 Formal Style

used in formal, often professional or

academic, settings. It is usually one-way and
authoritative

Feedback and social significance are not key

components of this style
 Formal Style

The main purpose of formal style is to impart

information; thus, complete sentences and
carefully-selected words are used
Some examples of contexts that use this style
are sermons by religious leaders, speeches by
world leaders, and job interviews
 Frozen Style

the most formal of all speech styles

It can also be called fixed speech since it is

usually unchanged over time
It is used in formal ceremonies or traditions
and in the delivery of prose or poetry
 Frozen Style

In this style, you should pay attention to

verbal and non-verbal factors such as
enunciation, volume, gestures, eye contact

You use the frozen style whenever you recite the

Pledge of Allegiance (Panatang Makabayan)
or participate in religious services.
SPEECH ACTS
Speech Act

We express a certain attitude that characterizes

our utterances when we perform speech acts. If
the audience could identify the attitude with the
speaker’s intent, only then can you consider
the speech act successful!
Types of Speech Acts
J. L. Austin developed the Speech Act Theory in 1962.

1. Locutionary Act

This is the act of saying something or making a

meaningful utterance that can be understood. When
performing this, we are also performing acts such as
asking a question, making a declaration, giving
warning or assurance,criticizing someone, or
describing something.
 Types of Speech Acts
J. L. Austin developed the Speech Act Theory in 1962.

1. Locutionary Act

There are three sub-acts to a locutionary act:

a. Phonic Act is the physical act of producing a certain string of vocal
sounds or a set of written symbols.

b. Phatic Act is the act of forming a coherent string of sounds or symbols

in a particular language.
 Types of Speech Acts
J. L. Austin developed the Speech Act Theory in 1962.

1. Locutionary Act

There are three sub-acts to a locutionary act:

c. Rhetic Act is the act of uttering the words in the sentence with a
specific meaning and reference.
 Types of Speech Acts
J. L. Austin developed the Speech Act Theory in 1962.

2. Illocutionary Act

This refers to the actions performed by the speaker in

producing an utterance.

These acts are linked to the speaker’s motivations. Here,

context is a main consideration for the listener to be able to
effectively decode the illocutionary act performed by the
speaker.
 Types of Speech Acts
J. L. Austin developed the Speech Act Theory in 1962.

2. Illocutionary Act
 Types of Speech Acts
J. L. Austin developed the Speech Act Theory in 1962.

3. Perlocutionary Act

It is an action or state of mind which is brought about by, or

because of saying something. In other words, it is the
hearer’s response to a speaker’s utterance.
READING AND WRITING
SKILLS
Critical Reading
-One of the advantages of reading is gaining deeper
understanding of a text and this involves critical
thinking.
-Being critical, therefore means advancing your
understanding and not just be satisfied with what a text
says.
-It also involves reflecting on what the text states and
determines the claims made by the author.
Critical Reading
-One of the advantages of reading is gaining deeper
understanding of a text and this involves critical
thinking.
-Being critical, therefore means advancing your
understanding and not just be satisfied with what a text
says.
-It also involves reflecting on what the text states and
determines the claims made by the author.
3 types of claims

1. Claim of Fact
2. Claim of Value
3. Claim of Policy
Claim of Fact
-Is a statement that present an ideas as true of false. It is
something that has existed (past), exists (present) or will
exist (future) which could also be verified using actual
evidence.
Example:
1. Tuberculosis was the oldest disease of mankind.
2. The coronavirus disease had started in Wuhan, China.
3. The number of online learner has risen due to the
pandemic experienced in the country.
Claim of Value
-is a statement that present ideas as good or bad, right or wrong,
better or worse. These claims are often influenced by morals,
beliefs, and preferences.
Example:
1. Traditional onsite learning is more effective than online learning.
2. Hoarding of grocery items is not helpful to the community.
3. Wearing of mask and social distancing is an ideal form defense
against viral diseases.
Claim of Policy
-is a statement present ideas as solutions to problems, usually
involving groups, organization or society in general. It is a statement
that contains what should or should not be done. The key word is the
verb “should”, “ought”, and “must”.
Examples:
1. Violators of the community quarantine should be subjected to manual labor
rather than imprisonment.
2. We should all have access to government assistance at all times.
3. Children below 18 years old should not be allowed to go out during the night.
Patterns of Development in Writing across
Disciplines

• Narration
• Description
• Definition
• Exemplification/Classification
• Comparison and Contrast
• Cause and Effect Essay
• Persuasion
Narration

Read the set of events and rewrite the following details on your answer sheet
to create a coherent story.
1. Finally, the old lady crossed the street safely and Juan was able to reach
school on time.
2. One morning, Juan is in a hurry going to school.
3. Then, he thought of helping the old lady even though he will be late in
school.
4. Suddenly, he saw an old lady, carrying a full of basket, crossing the street.
WHAT IS
IT? NARRATION
Narration
●Sequential presentation of events plays an
important role.
●Signal words help to create unified thought and to
show the transition of events to the next. This
leads us to focus on the use of the action words in
the story. It also helps to move the story and
makes the story interesting.
Narration
●The chronological ordering of events helps to
show the reader how the story moves. Most of
the common transitional words are first, next,
then, after and suddenly. Moreover, it is also
important to give specific details in pointing
out the direction of the story.
What I Have Learned…
Choose the best word/group of words that will complete the statements.
Chronological Order Narration Transitional Devices Sequence
Plot
1. _________ is a writing pattern that is used to tell story.
2. A narrative text contains the _________ which gives direction in the story.
3. _________are words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to
another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another.
4. Most of the common transitional words to show _________ of events are first,
next, then, after and suddenly.
5. The _________of events helps to show the reader how the story moves.
What I Have Learned…

Choose the best word/group of words that will complete the statements.
Chronological Order Narration Transitional Devices Sequence Plot
1. __Narration___ is a writing pattern that is used to tell story.
2. A narrative text contains the __plot___ which gives direction in the story.
3. ____Transitional Devices__are words or phrases that help carry a thought from
one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to
another.
4. Most of the common transitional words to show ___sequence_ of events are first,
next, then, after and suddenly.
5. The ___chronological order___of events helps to show the reader how the story
moves.
Description
What is It?

Description
According to Dayagbil & et al, 2016, the use
of description plays an important role to elucidate
the nature of people, places and things. A series of
detailed observation about the subject can help you
create a good descriptive paragraph. This involves
the use of adjectives and adverbs in the paragraph.
What is It?

Description
The kind of words we used to describe how
your subject looks, sounds, feels, smells or even
tastes like are called sensory languages. It also
concerns how you will arrange the details to provide
an image of the scene, the person or the object you
are trying to describe in your text.
What is It?

2 types Description
First is objective description,
where the writer presents impartial
and actual picture of the subject
without biases and excluding personal
impression of the subject just like
when you give your description of an
experiment in class.
What is It?
2 types Description
Second is subjective description,
where the writer gives personal
impression of what is observed. This is
often used in making fiction stories. For
instance, when you are asked to write
about a place you visit during summer
vacation, you tend to give your personal
judgment of how you experience the
place.
 What I Have Learned…

Choose the best word/group of words that will complete the statements.
Objective Subjective Description Sensory languages Modifiers

1. ____________ is a writing pattern of developing paragraph using detailed observation

about the subject.
2. ____________ are used in writing descriptive paragraph.
3. ____________ can be in a form of word, phrase or clause.
4. ____________description presents impartial and actual picture of the subjects without
biases.
5. ____________ description gives the personal impression of the writer.
 What I Have Learned…

Choose the best word/group of words that will complete the statements.

1. Description_ is a writing pattern of developing paragraph using

detailed observation about the subject.
2. Sensory languages___ are used in writing descriptive paragraph.
3. Modifiers can be in a form of word, phrase or clause.
4. Objective_______description presents impartial and actual picture
of the subjects without biases.
5. Subjective _____ description gives the personal impression of the
writer.
Definition
What is It? DEFINITION

● Definitions provide concise but exact meanings of unfamiliar

words and explain special meanings for familiar words.
● They are often used to explain technical words and concepts.
● What to define always depends on the needs of the reader and
the purpose of communication.
● It can be done in either of the two distinct methods of
definition.
Exemplification
✔ (or illustration) is the most common and effective
pattern to explain an idea or point.
✔ In developing this kind of paragraph, the writer
develops a general statement –the topic sentence,
with one or more examples to support it.
✔ Here are some transitional devices in writing
effective exemplification paragraphs: for
instance, namely, to be specify, to clarify, to
illustrate, for example, in short, as an example.
Classification
✔ On the other hand, classification is used when a
writer needs to sort out or arrange subjects to
groups or categories based on their common and
shared characteristics.
✔ Here are some transitional devices in writing
effective classification paragraphs: classified as,
one kind, the last group, another kind, another,
final type, the first category, are categorized as,
the next part.
Exemplification/
Classification
✔ Remember that you can use both
exemplification and classification in
developing a paragraph by simply identifying
categories on a particular subject and
providing examples or illustration to explain
and clarify meaning.
Post- Activity

Read the excerpt that follows.

After reading it, make a short
paragraph that has the same
pattern of development. Be able to
employ transitional devices to
make it effective:
3 minutes
Post- Activity
Try this! ● Choose the word/s that do/does not belong on each
Classification as line then write a category name for each group (i.e.
pattern of rose, banana, sun flower, daisy = banana/flowers).
development of 1. German Shepherd, Golden Retriever, Persian
writing makes you Siamese, Siberian Husky
associate similar 2. on land, by water, by air, by bus
things or process 3. carrot, cabbage, radish, onion
by grouping them 4. jazz, rock, pop, ballet
into classes or
5. Coins, Dollar, Yen, Franc
categories.
Comparison and
Contrast
Comparison and
Contrast
●School writing activities may require
you to do comparison and contrast,
in which you focus on similarities
and differences of ideas. By
assigning you such writing activities,
you are encouraged to make
connections between text and ideas
and engage you in critical thinking.
Comparison and Contrast
My sisters are as different as yin and yang in terms of personality,
appearance and intelligence. Tina, the middle child in the family, prefers staying
at home than going out with her friends. She is slim, petite and has dark skin.
As she is not sociable, she finds friends with the characters from the books she
reads most of the time. In addition, she is very clever in subjects like Math and
Science which made her graduate with Highest Honors from Senior High
School. In contrast, my youngest sister, Joni, is the opposite. She has an
outgoing and friendly personality. There is never a dull moment as she is
always ready with stories to tell. She is tall with a round plump face and fair
skin. Being the youngest in the family, she is often asked to perform during
family gatherings since she sings and dances well. My sisters may be different
from each other but they adore one another.
Comparison and Contrast
My sisters are as different as yin and yang in terms of personality,
appearance and intelligence. Tina, the middle child in the family, prefers
staying at home than going out with her friends. She is slim, petite and has dark
skin. As she is not sociable, she finds friends with the characters from the books
she reads most of the time. In addition, she is very clever in subjects like Math
and Science which made her graduate with Highest Honors from Senior High
School. In contrast, my youngest sister, Joni, is the opposite. She has an
outgoing and friendly personality. There is never a dull moment as she is
always ready with stories to tell. She is tall with a round plump face and fair
skin. Being the youngest in the family, she is often asked to perform during
family gatherings since she sings and dances well. My sisters may be different
from each other but they adore one another.
 ✔Comparison in writing discusses
elements that are similar while contrast
in writing discusses elements or ideas
that are different.
✔ A compare-and-contrast essay, then
Comparison analyzes two subjects comparing them,
and Contrast contrasting them, or both.
✔ However, its purpose is not to simply
state the obvious but rather to
illustrate subtle differences or
unexpected similarities between two
subjects.
 ✔As a writer, you should help the readers
see how these two ideas are similar or
Comparison different by showing them its
and Contrast advantages and disadvantages, so they
are able to weigh the pros and cons
before they make judgment or decision.
 ⮚There are two common ways to organize
comparison/contrast paragraph or essay.
⮚ The Block Method is used to
compare and contrast two subjects
one at a time. You may begin by
Comparison and saying everything you have to say
about the first subject you are
Contrast discussing then move on and write
everything about your second
subject. If you are writing a short
paragraph or essay, you might be
able to fit all of your points about
each item.
 ⮚There are two common ways to organize
comparison/contrast paragraph or essay.
⮚However, if you would want to
address one subject at a time,
you may use Point-by-point
Comparison and comparison. Some cohesive
devices you can use in showing
Contrast similarities are likewise, similar
to, same with, like, in the same
manner. To show contrast, cue
words such as: on the other
hand, however, while, different
with, in contrast and the like.
 - A text is neither written nor read in a
On Identifying vacuum; its meaning and interpretation are
affected by a given set of circumstances.
the
CONTEXT of
TEXT - Thus, a CONTEXT is defined as the social,
cultural, political, historical, and other related
Development circumstances that surround the text and form
the terms from which it can be better understood
and evaluated.
 - Knowledge of the TEXT’S
CONTEXT helps in appreciating the
On Identifying text’s message more deeply.
the
CONTEXT of - In discovering reading’s context,
you may ask questions:
TEXT
Development 1. When was the work written?
2. What were the circumstances that produced
it?
3. What issues does it deal with?
 A. Intertext
On Identifying
the
CONTEXT of
TEXT
Development B. Hypertext
Intertext/Intertextuality
●-as defined by Michael Riffaterre
(2010), “depends on a system of
limitations in out freedom of choice, of
exclusions, since it is by renouncing
incompatible associations within the
text that we come to identify in the
intertext their compatible counterparts”
Intertext/Intertextuality
●-He further states that this intertextuality
is the complete opposite of
Hypertextuality because the former
builds a “structured network” of limits
that will keep the reader on track
(towards the correct interpretation), the
latter is a “loose web of free association”
Intertext/Intertextuality
●-also involves connections built on social
meanings in which participants make
intertextual links in order to build social
relationships or connections (Blooome &
Egan-Robertson, 1993). For example,
participants in conversation may allude to
shared experiences to foster a social bond or
an insider reference to exclude others.
Intertext/Intertextuality
●-a literary device that creates
“interrelationship between texts” and
generates related understanding in separate
works (“Intertextuality”, 2015). These
references are made to influence that reader
and add layers of depth to a text, based on
the readers’ prior knowledge and
understanding.
Intertext/Intertextuality
●-is the modeling of a text’s meaning by
another text.
●-defined as the connections between
language, images, characters, themes, or
subjects depending on their similarities
in language, genre or discourse.
Intertext/Intertextuality
●Example:

●The local legend of folk hero Bernardo

Carpio. Many versions of his tale exists, but
local folklore says he is a giant who is the
cause of earthquakes. In Greek mythology,
there is also Poseidon, who is the god of the
sea and earthquakes. Many cultures also
attribute natural disasters to legendary https://www.britannica.com/
topic/Poseidon
figures.
Intertext/Intertextuality
●Example:

●In context, if you have watched World War Z

(a movie about a zombie apocalypse) and then
happen to watch The Walking Dead, you begin
to understand more about the possibility of the
world to face such apocalypse and how humans
will adjust for survival. That is where
intertextuality comes in. There is an
improvement of the overall meaning of what you
are reading.
 Hypertext/Hypertextuality
●Hypertext connects topics on a screen
to related information, graphics, videos,
and music—information is not simply
related to text. This information appears
as links and is usually accessed by
clicking.
 Hypertext/Hypertextuality
●-according to K. Amaral, 2010, it is a non-
linear way of presenting information. Rather
than reading or learning about things in order
that an author, or editor, or publisher sets out
for us, readers of hypertext may follow their
own path, create their own order—their own
meaning out of the material.
Hypertext/Hypertextuality
●A reader can skim through
sections of a text, freely jumping
from one part to another
depending on what aspect of the
text interests him/her..
Hypertext/Hypertextuality
●It is particularly useful as a way to
introduce computer-mediated dialogic
interaction in any writing class
because it can be applied in much the
same way in non-networked classes
and networked classes alike.
Hypertext/Hypertextuality
●This is accomplished by creating
“links” between information.
These links are provided so that
readers may “jump” to further
information about a specific topic
being discussed.
Hypertext/Hypertextuality
 Hypertext/Intertext
Hypertext is essential in reading and writing
for readers generally tend to learn better
through associating things with another
things(compare
Hypertext andandcontrast).
is essential in reading writing for readers generally tend to learn better through associating things with another
On the other
things(compare hand, On
and contrast). intertext is also
the other hand, relevant
intertext is also relevant since it shows how much certain circumstances
influence the product of authors and how much authors influence give back influence to certain circumstances. Both are
since it shows how much certain
influential circumstances
and play a vital role in text development.
influence the product of authors and how much
authors influence give back influence to certain
circumstances. Both are influential and play a
vital role in text development.
 DEBATE
1. The class will be divided to 6 groups. Three groups will be assigned for
the affirmative side and the other 3 groups will be assigned for opposition
side.

2. The prime minister of each group will draw a topic to be discussed.

3. Each group will be given 10 mins to prepare for their speech.

4. 2 minutes will be given for each presenter and 30 seconds for rebuttal.