Public Relations: Theories and Practices

Chapter One
A Theoretical underpinning of Public Relations

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.

Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis

THE USE OF THEORY IN PUBLIC

RELATIONS

There is no single theory that covers all

public relations and communication.

Today we will study three theories about

relationships, five about cognition and
behavior, and two about media and
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Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis

WHY UNDERSTAND THEORY?

 Theories help practitioners explain and predict

human behavior and communication and guide
organizational decision making.

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CONNECTING THEORIES WITH PUBLIC RELATIONS

 What is theory?
A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.

 How do theories help the PR practitioner?

Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.

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THEORIES OF RELATIONSHIPS

 Cause-effect principles or theories can guide you in

understanding how organizations relate to their publics.
 Systems theory
 Situational theory

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SYSTEMS THEORY

 Definition: The attitudes and actions of an

organization or public contribute to a cause-
effect chain reaction within their environment.

 The parts of an organization and public exist in

relationship to each other, meaning the actions of
one part affect the others.

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APPLYING SYSTEMS THEORY TO PR

 Helps the practitioner manage the organization’s
relationships.
 Emphasizes interdependence between an
organization and its internal and external
environments.

 Two types of systems

Open
Closed
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OPEN SYSTEMS

 Open systems are systems that take their environment into

account and change their business activities accordingly.
 Focuses on input from external publics and the
organization’s external environment.

 Allows for the two-way flow of information between an

organization and its environment

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CLOSED SYSTEM

 Closed systems do not adapt to external conditions.

 Cutlip and his colleagues suggest that PR should view
itself as part of an open system.
 Focuses on the history of the organization and makes
decisions based on past experiences.
 It should help the organisation to monitor relevant
environmental influences and adapt its activities
accordingly, as well as encouraging changes in the
external environment that will help the organisation.
 In this model, two-way symmetric communications and
strategic monitoring of the environment are fundamental
to good PR practice.
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SITUATIONAL THEORY
 Definition: People will act on an issue or
situation when they believe it affects them
personally and their actions can make a
difference.
 Three variables:
 Problem recognition: People must be
able to see the potential of an issue to
affect them personally.
 Constraint recognition: People must see
that they can do something about the
issue.
 Level of involvement: People must care
about resolving the issue.
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TWO BENEFITS OF SITUATIONAL THEORY

 Helps the practitioner predict when groups will become

active or remain apathetic.

 Helps the practitioner create communication strategies for

specific publics.

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PUBLIC OPINION THEORIES

 What are attitudes?

 What are opinions?
 Is there any interaction between attitudes and opinions?
 What is cognitive dissonance?
 Are we influenced by rational or irrational reasoning?

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SHAPING PUBLIC OPINION

 What are attitudes?

 Predispositions to respond in a given way to an issue
or situation
 What are opinions?

 Expression of an attitude on a controversial issue.

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PR OBJECTIVES FOR SHAPING OPINION

 Conserve Favorable Opinion

 Crystallize uninformed, or latent opinion

 Change/neutralize hostile opinion

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COGNITION AND BEHAVIOR

 Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while
behavioral theories deal with action.
 Important to know how a client’s behavior may affect
others.
 Words and actions are given personalized meanings by
others, and sometimes that meaning is not what was
intended.
 Practitioners seek to influence the publics’
interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent .

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THEORIES OF PERSUASION & SOCIAL INFLUENCE

 Explain how humans think and behave

 Three common theories include

 Social exchange theory
 Diffusion theory
 Social learning theory

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SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY

 Uses the economic metaphor of costs and benefits to
predict behavior

 In general people want their costs low and rewards high

(eg. Get-rich quick schemes).

 Practitioners look at how to let publics evaluate costs

and rewards to show the benefits of particular action.

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DIFFUSION THEORY
 Individuals can be influenced to diffuse and adopt an idea
by going through five stages.
1. Awareness
2. Interest
3. Evaluation
4. Trial
5. Adoption

 Mass media is useful in the first two stages, and personal

influence is needed in the next two before adoption takes
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THE FIVE STAGES OF ADOPTION

1. Awareness – Topic known but knowledge limited.
• Stage engages the mass media and significant others
2. Interest – Development of interest begins; information sought.
• Stage engages the mass media and significant others
3. Evaluation – Idea applied to individual situations, more information
obtained.
• Stage engages unbiased third parties and significant others
4. Trial – Use begins on a small scale.
• Stage engages unbiased third parties and significant others
5. Adoption – Idea, service or product adopted after being proven
worthwhile.
• Stage engages significant others and personal experience
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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

 Social Psychologist Albert Bandera suggests that we can
learn new behaviors by observing others.

 When we see a behavior that has the reward we want, we

may adapt that behavior for ourselves.

 Thus, in employee relations we can see that if

inappropriate behavior has been rewarded for one
employee, others may follow.

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SUMMARY OF THEORIES ABOUT COGNITION &

BEHAVIOR

 Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that reduce

costs and increase rewards.
 Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt ideas through five stages.
 Social Learning Theory: people can be influenced by
seeing how others are rewarded for particular actions.

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THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

 There are three theories that help us understand the powerful

influence of media.
 Use and Gratification Theory
 Framing Theory
 Agenda Setting Theory

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A DEFINITION OF MEDIA

 The English word media is a Latin derivative of medius,

meaning middle.
 For our purposes we define media as…
 all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster’s New World
College Dictionary, 1999).
 Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun.

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USE AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY

 People are active users of media and choose
how and when to use media based on its
gratification for them.
 Reasons for media usage include…
 for entertainment
 to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
 for a diversion
 for a substitute for personal relationships
 for a check on self-identity

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APPLICATION FOR THE PRACTITIONER

 The use and gratification theory helps the practitioner

explain media effects, or the absence of effects.
 The practitioner must remember that just because a message
is available doesn’t mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.

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FRAMING THEORY

 Theory supposes that messages sent from the media may

carry with them a pre-existing set of meanings.

 Typically identified with catchphrases or visual images

 Example “War on Terror”

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AGENDA SETTING THEORY

 Agenda Setting is based on the assumption that although
media can’t tell people what opinion to hold about an issue, it
has influence on what issues people think about.

 The agenda setting theory proposes that media has the

potential to:
 build issue or product awareness
 increase issue salience

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Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis

PR ROLES - THE MANAGER

Roles have been defined in public relations theory by

public relations scholars Glen Broom and David Dozier

 Expert prescriber: person who operates as a consultant to

define the problem, suggest options, and oversee
implementation
 Communication facilitator: person on the boundary
between the organization and its environment who keeps
two-way communication flowing.
 Problem-solving facilitator: person who partners with
senior management to identify and solve problems.

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MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

 Press agentry: oldest form of public relations practice
where propaganda tactics, special events, are used. Little
regard for research or ethics.
 Public Information: intent is to inform through one-way
information such as press releases.
 Two-way asymmetrical model: scientific persuasion using
social science methods to increase persuasiveness of
messages.
 Two-way symmetrical model: depicts public relations
orientation in which organizations and public adjust to each
other. It focuses on use of social science methods to
achieve mutual understanding and two-way communication
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Public Information
 Ivy Lee – “Declaration of Principles”
 Emphasis on truthful, accurate information

 Dissemination.

 World War I – Creel Committee

 Edward L. Bernays

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NEWER MODELS FOR THE PR PRACTICE

Jim Grunig has developed numerous

models that more effectively explain
how public relations works

 Personal Influence model: Practitioners develop personal

relationships with key individuals because of their
influence.

 Cultural Interpreter model: Establishes that to do public

relations in another country, the practitioner needs to work
with someone who understands the language, culture,
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customs and politics to do business.
Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis

APPROACHES TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION

 Conflicts involve an individual or group actively opposing

another because of differences in values and goals.

 Four resolution elements:

 Separate the people from the problem.
 Focus on interests, not positions.
 Invent options for mutual gain.
 Insist on objective criteria.

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IN SUMMARY

Understanding the theories behind the behavior of an

organization’s publics is essential for developing strategies
and tactics that can help an organization achieve its goals.
Modern PR practitioners focus on two-way communication
that values the input of the publics as much as the
persuasive power of the organization.
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