Active / Reactive / Apparent power

Power Factor
Three phase systems
Single Phase Transformer

19th Sep 2011 - IITH

  Power in Resistive Components
 Power in Capacitors
 Power in Inductors
 Circuits with Resistance and Reactance
 Active and Reactive Power
 Power Factor
 Three-Phase Systems
 Single Phase Transformer

19th Sep 2011 - IITH

 Introduction

 The instantaneous power dissipated in a component is a

product of the instantaneous voltage and the
instantaneous current
p = vi
 In a resistive circuit the voltage and current are in phase –
calculation of p is straightforward
 In reactive circuits, there will normally be some phase
shift between v and i, and calculating the power becomes
more complicated

19th Sep 2011 - IITH

 Determination of power in AC circuits
Purely Resistive A.C. circuits
Applied voltage

Resulting current

Then, corresponding Instantaneous power, p

r.m.s. Voltage V = 0.707.Vm

Average power

P = VxI = I2R = V2/R

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 Determination of power in AC circuits
Purely Inductive A.C. circuits

Frequency of power is twice of v or i

The average power is zero

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 Determination of power in AC circuits
Purely capacitive A.C. circuits

The average power is zero

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 Power in resistive & Inductive circuits

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 Active and Reactive power through power triangle
 Consider an RL circuit
– the relationship
between the various
forms of power can
be illustrated using
a power triangle

Active Power or true power

P = VI cos (watts)

Reactive Power
Q = VI sin (var)

Apparent Power (total power)

S = VI (VA)
S2 = P2 + Q2
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 Power in resistive & Inductive circuits

 From the above discussion it is clear that

P  VI cos 
 S cos 

 In other words, the active power is the apparent power times

the cosine of the phase angle.
 This cosine is referred to as the power factor

Active power (in watts)

 Power factor
Apparent power (in volt amperes)

P
Power factor   cos 
S

19th Sep 2011 - IITH

 Active and Reactive power

 When a circuit has resistive and reactive parts, the resultant

power has 2 parts:
– The first is dissipated in the resistive element.
This is the active power, P
– The second is stored and returned by the reactive
element. This is the reactive power, Q , which has units
of volt amperes reactive or var
 While reactive power is not dissipated it does have an effect
on the system
– for example, it increases the current that must be supplied
and increases losses with cables

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 Power factor correction

 Power factor is particularly important in high-power applications

 Inductive loads have a lagging power factor
 Capacitive loads have a leading power factor
 Many high-power devices are inductive
– a typical AC motor has a power factor of 0.9 lagging
– the total load on the national grid is 0.8-0.9 lagging
– this leads to major efficiencies
– power companies therefore penalise industrial users who
introduce a poor power factor

19th Sep 2011 - IITH

 Power factor correction

 The problem of poor power factor is tackled by adding

additional components to bring the power factor back
closer to unity
– a capacitor of an appropriate size in parallel with a
lagging load can ‘cancel out’ the inductive element
– this is power factor correction
– a capacitor can also be used in series but this is less
common (since this alters the load voltage)

How to detect reactive component for power factor correction?

19th Sep 2011 - IITH

 Three Phase Systems

 So far, our discussion of AC systems has been restricted

to single-phase arrangement
– as in conventional domestic supplies

 In high-power industrial applications we often use three-

phase arrangements
– these have three supplies, differing in phase by 120 
– phases are labeled red, yellow and blue (R, Y & B)

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 3 phase Alternator

Sinusoidal voltages are

Induced in each stator winding

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 Three Phase Systems
 Relationship between the phases in a three-phase arrangement

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 Three Phase Systems: Star-Delta connections

What is the use of Delta connection?

Because when we transmit power at high voltage (like 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV,
500 kV etc.) we don’t need a neutral connection. Because our main goal is to
transfer bulk power via transmission lines, so neutral wire has no usage in
transmitting the power.

Preferred at distribution side Preferred at Transmission side

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 Three Phase Systems

 Three-phase arrangements may use either 3 or 4

conductors

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 Power measurement

 When using AC, power is determined not only by the r.m.s.

values of the voltage and current, but also by the phase
angle (which determines the power factor)
– consequently, you cannot determine the power from
independent measurements of current and voltage
 In single-phase systems power is normally measured using
an electrodynamic wattmeter
– measures power directly using a single meter which
effectively multiplies instantaneous current and voltage

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 Key points

 In resistive circuits the average power is equal to VI, where V and I are
r.m.s. values
 In a capacitor the current leads the voltage by 90 and the average power
is zero
 In an inductor the current lags the voltage by 90 and the average power
is zero
 In circuits with both resistive and reactive elements, the average power is
VI cos 
 The term cos  is called the power factor
 Power factor correction is important in high-power systems
 High-power systems often use three-phase arrangements

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 Single phase transformer
 Principle of operation
 Equivalent circuit
 OC and SC test
 Voltage regulation
 Efficiency

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 Transformer: Applications

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 Mutual Induction
Consider two coils, close to each other
Consider a single coil

M21 Mutual Inductance

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 Transformer: working principle
Mutual Induction, sets magnetic flux, Φ which is common to both primary & secondary
Inductive coils that are Electrically isolated, but, magnetically coupled.

E1 E2

Laminated core, offer high permeability

Made of steel with high Si content

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 Transformer: working principle
Induced e.m.f. E, in a coil of N turns
given by,

The rate of change of flux is same

for both primary and secondary

In an Ideal transformer, losses neglected

Then, Input power = Output power

i.e. V1I1 = V2I2

Voltage ratio; turns or transformation ratio

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 Step-up / step-down Transformer

Step-down transformer
If, N2 < N1; V2 < V1

Step-up transformer
If, N2 > N1; V2 > V1

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 Problem 2:
When an ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 8:1 and the primary current is 3A,
when it is supplied with 240V AC. Calculate the secondary voltage and current?

19th Sep 2011 - IITH

 Transformer no-load: Phasor diagram
No load, No losses No load, losses considered

Core flux Φ is common to both

primary and secondary
No load, primary current, Io

Since, losses neglected,

pure inductor, hence Io lags 90°
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 Transformer on-load: Phasor diagram

If voltage drop across windings negligible, E2=V2; E1=V1

When load connected, secondary current flow

I2 lags V2 by Φ2 ; Because of I2 resulting emf

tends to reduce core flux;

However, reduction core flux, reduces E1

Hence, a reflected increase in primary current I’1

provides restoring e.m.f.

I’1 is often called as balancing current, opposite to I2

The phasor sum of I’1 and Io gives supply current I1

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 Equivalent circuit of Transformer

R1, R2 – resistances of primary and secondary windings respectively

X1, X2 – reactances of primary and secondary windings respectively
Ic – current core losses, due hysteresis and eddy current
IM – magnetizing current

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 Open circuit & Short circuit test of Transformer
Open circuit test:
• To find out core loss & Cu loss is negligible

• Ammeter A, gives no load current, which is very small

less than 5% of full load current, So I2R loss on
no-load is 1/400 times of full load, hence, negligible.

• Wattmeter reading is therefore core loss of transformer

Short circuit test:

• Secondary is short-circuited thro’ suitable Ammeter.

• A low voltage is applied to primary circuit

• Core loss is negligibly small, since low V1

• Wattmeter reading is therefore I2R loss of transformer

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 Regulation of Transformer
When the secondary winding of the transformer is loaded then,
the secondary terminal voltage V2 falls.

As the power factor decreases, this voltage drop increases, which is

known as regulation of transformer, normally represented in percentage

E2 – No load secondary voltage; V2 - secondary terminal voltage

Fall in voltage E2-V2 caused by resistance and reactance of windings

Typical values of voltage regulation are,

~3 % for small transformers and ~1 % for large transformers
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 Transformer losses and Efficiency

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 A 200kVA rated transformer has a full load Cu loss of 1.5kW and Iron loss of 1kW.
Determine the transformer efficiency at full load and 0.85 power factor.

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 Thank you

19th Sep 2011 - IITH