CELL BIOLOGY

MAHS – Prepared by Ms. D. Drummond

 CELLS

Cells are the building blocks of all living

organisms. Organisms made of a single
cell, such as bacteria and the fungus yeast,
are described as being unicellular.
Organisms made of many cells such as
animals, most plants and many species of
fungi, are described as being multicellular.
Multicellular organisms can be made up of
millions of cells.
 BASIC CELL STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Cell structure How it is related to its function

A jelly-like material that contains dissolved nutrients and salts and

Cytoplasm structures called organelles. It is where many of the chemical reactions
happen.

Nucleus Contains genetic material, including DNA, which controls the cell's
activities.

Cell membrane Its structure is permeable to some substances but not to others, it
therefore controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Mitochondria Organelles that contain the enzymes for respiration, and where most
energy is released in respiration.

Ribosomes A tiny organelle where protein synthesis occurs.

The Animal Cell
THE ANIMAL CELL

Animal cells have a basic structure.

The basic structure is shown in the same animal cell, on the left viewed with the
light microscope, and on the right with the transmission electron microscope.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE IMAGE OF AN ANIMAL CELL–
WHICH ORGANELLES CAN YOU IDENTIFY?
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE IMAGE OF AN ANIMAL CELL–
WHICH ORGANELLES CAN YOU IDENTIFY?
The Plant Cell
THE PLANT CELL
 PLANT CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Cell structure How it is related to its function

Organelles that contain the green pigment, chlorophyll, which

Chloroplast absorbs light energy for photosynthesis. Contains the enzymes
needed for photosynthesis.

Made from cellulose fibres and strengthens the cell and

Cell wall
supports the plant.

Permanent vacuole Filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid.
THE PLANT CELL

Animal cells may also have vacuoles, but these are small
and temporary.

In animals, they are commonly used to store or transport

substances.
E.g.
Proteins and Lipids
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE IMAGE OF A PLANT CELL– WHICH
ORGANELLES CAN YOU IDENTIFY?
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE IMAGE OF A PLANT CELL– WHICH
ORGANELLES CAN YOU IDENTIFY?
ACTIVITY

Draw and label the basic cell structure of the animal and
plant cell on a blank sheet to be pasted into your note
books.
SPECIALIZED CELLS
Each type of cell has its own job to do. These cells
have special features that allow them to perform
their functions effectively.
What is differentiation?

Multicellular organisms begin life as a single fertilized egg cell

called a zygote.
The zygote has a nucleus containing a full set of genes. When the
zygote divides by mitosis, the full set of genes are copied and this
process continues until a ball of cells called an embryo is formed.
At this point cells begin to become adapted to specific functions.
This is called differentiation and is controlled by genes.
Differentiation

Differentiated cells are important in a multicellular organism

because they are able to perform a specialised function in the
body. However, specialization comes at a cost.
The cost is that the differentiated cells often lose the ability to
make new copies of themselves.
Multicellular organisms must therefore retain some unspecialized
cells that can replenish cells when needed.
These unspecialized cells are called stem cells in animals and
meristems in plants.
Differentiation – BRAIN TEASER

What makes meristems different from stem cells other than the fact
that meristems are from plants and stem cells are from animals?
SPECIALIZED CELLS

Do you know any special…

Plant cells?

Animal cells?

What do they do?

SPECIALIZED CELLS

Most cells of multicellular organisms are specialised and are

adapted for their function and specific roles in the organism of
which they are part. .

Animals and plants therefore consist of many different types of

cell working together (often grouped together with other
similar cells in tissues.)
SPECIALIZED CELLS
Specialized Plant Cells
 SPECIALIZED PLANT CELLS

type of cell Function How it is adapted to its function

A long thin 'hair' extends from each cell into

the soil increasing the root's surface area. Each
Root hair cell They absorb water and minerals. root has many thousands of root hairs, which
can make the root look furry.

Dead cells are joined end to end to form a

Xylem cell They transport water and minerals up the stem continuous tube. They have no cytoplasm.
to leaves and flowers. Their walls contain lignin for strengthening.

They transport sugars, amino acids, other Made of tube-like living cells joined end to
Phloem cell substances both up and down the stem to end. They do have cytoplasm. This means that
leaves, flowers and roots. the cells are living.
SPECIALIZED PLANT CELLS – ROOT HAIR CELLS

Roots hold plants in place as they grow and also absorb water
and minerals from the soil.
Roots divide into smaller and smaller branches as they travel into
the soil. The outside surface of roots are covered with root hair
cells, which have tiny 'hairs' which poke into the soil.
This massively increases the surface area for the root hair cell to
absorb more water and minerals.
ROOT HAIR CELLS
PALISADE CELLS

When the sun shines, photosynthesis in plant cells makes sugar

for growth, reproduction and other life processes. Photosynthesis
occurs in a special chemical called chlorophyll, which is found in
parts of plant cells called chloroplasts.
Palisade cells are the major site of photosynthesis. They are well
adapted for this function because:
 they are towards the tops of leaves for maximum light.
 they have lots of chloroplasts.
PALISADE CELLS
SPECIALIZED PLANT CELLS - XYLEM AND PHLOEM CELLS

Xylem cells transport water from the roots to other parts of the plant. transport
sugary water from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
Specialized Animal Cells
SPECIALIZED ANIMAL CELLS – MUSCLE CELLS

Muscles cells are found in bundles which make up our muscles. These cells are
able to contract (get shorter) and relax (return to original length).

There are different types of muscle cell, each perfectly adapted to its function:
 Cardiac (heart) muscle cells contract and relax to pump blood around our
bodies for our entire lives. They never get tired.
 Smooth muscle cells make up thin sheets of muscle, such as the stomach
lining. They can also be arranged in bundles, or rings, like that in the anus.
 Skeletal muscle is joined to bones. Its cells contract to make bones move and
joints bend.
MUSCLE CELL
SPECIALIZED ANIMAL CELLS – RED BLOOD CELLS

Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body, which is needed for
respiration.
They are well suited to this function because:
 They contain Haemoglobin which carries oxygen molecules.
 They don't have a nucleus, allowing more space to carry oxygen.
 They are a flat disc shape with dips on both sides (biconcave).
This gives them a large surface area, and the best chance of
absorbing as much oxygen as they can in the lungs.
RED BLOOD CELLS
SPECIALIZED ANIMAL CELLS – SPERM CELLS

Sperm are the male sex cell. They are made in the testes after puberty.
They join with an egg cell during fertilisation to form an embryo which can then
develop into a new life. The following features make them well suited to this
function:
 A tail moves them towards an egg cell.
 Many mitochondria release energy for movement.
 Part of the tip of the head of the sperm, called the acrosome, releases enzymes
to digest the egg membrane to allow fertilisation to take place.
 The haploid nucleus contains the genetic material for fertilisation. Sperm are
produced in large numbers to increase the chance of fertilisation.
SPERM CELL
SPECIALIZED ANIMAL CELLS – EGG CELLS

Eggs are the female sex cell. They are made in the ovaries before birth.
Usually, one egg is released each month during the menstrual cycle, but
sometimes this number may be higher. They join with a sperm cell during
fertilisation to form an embryo which can then develop into a new life.
They are well suited to this function because:
 The egg cell’s cytoplasm contains nutrients for the growth of the early
embryo.
 The haploid nucleus contains genetic material for fertilisation.
 The cell membrane changes after fertilisation by a single sperm so that no
more sperm can enter.
EGG CELL
SPECIALIZED ANIMAL CELLS –NERVE CELLS

Nerve cells transmit electrical signals in the nervous system

They are well suited to their function because:

 They are thin, and can be more than one metre long in your spinal cord. This
means they can carry messages up and down the body over large distances very
quickly.
 Nerve cells have branched connections at each end. These join to other nerve
cells, allowing them to pass messages around the body.
 They have a fatty (myelin) sheath that surrounds them. The fatty sheath increases
the speed at which the message can travel.
NERVE CELL
CILLIATED CELL

Ciliated cells are found in the

airways. They have tiny hairs on
their tops called cilia.
which beat in a rhythm. These
hairs move mucus containing dust
and other particles upwards and
out of the airways. Ciliated cells
are also found in the oviducts.
Here the tiny hairs beat to move
the egg from the ovaries to the
uterus.
VILLI

Villi are structures about one millimetre

long in the small and large intestines.
Millions of them poke out to absorb
digested food and water into the blood.
They are well suited to this function
because:
They have a large surface area.
They have thin walls which are only one
cell thick.
The cells of the lining have tiny hairs to
absorb more food and water.
 CLASSWORK/ACTIVITY

1. Complete the worksheet.

2. Use the microscope to view and identify specialized cells.

Microbes
Bacteria and Amoeba
 COMPARING PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Feature Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell

Size Most are 5–100 μm Most are 0.2–2.0 μm

Cell membrane. Surrounded by cell wall in

Outer layers of cell Cell membrane. Surrounded by cell wall.
plants and fungi.

Cytoplasm. Cell organelles include

Cytoplasm. Ribosomes present. There are
Cell contents mitochondria, chloroplasts in plants and
no mitochondria or chloroplasts.
ribosomes.

DNA is a single molecule that is found free

DNA in a nucleus. Plasmids are found in a
Genetic material in the cytoplasm. Additional DNA is found
few simple eukaryotic organisms.
on one or more rings called plasmids.

Type of cell division Mitosis Binary fission

 Eukaryotes and prokaryotes

• Bacteria are amongst the simplest

of organisms - they are made of
single cells.
• Their cell structure is simpler than
the cells of animals, plants and
fungi.
• Cells of animals, plants and fungi
are called eukaryotic cells.
• Cells of bacteria are called
prokaryotic cells.
Homework

 On a blank sheet of paper, draw and label a simple generalized

bacterial cell and amoeba.

 Explain the function of the structure of the bacterial cell.

Hierarchy of cells – Homework

Individually, for the next class:

1. Define the Hierarchy of cells.

2. List the level of organization of cells.

3. Describe structures at each level of organization.

4. Give TWO examples of animal and plant tissues and state their functions.
Hierarchy and
Organization of cells
Levels of organisation

In order of increasing complexity, multicellular organisms are made of:

____ → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → ____

Structure Description

A specialised unit within a cell which performs a specific

Organelle
function

Cell The basic building block of all living organisms

A group of cells working together to perform a shared function,

Tissue
and often with similar structure

A structure made up of groups of different tissues, working

Organ
together to perform specific functions

A group of organs with related functions, working together to

Organ system
perform certain functions within the body
.
Surface area to volume ratio

Most animals and plants consist of different types of cells organized as

tissues, organs and systems. The human respiratory system is a body
system adapted for efficient gas exchange.

Organisms must take in food, oxygen and water, and other essential
substances, from the environment. Plants also need carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis Organisms also need to remove waste substances.
Surface area to volume ratio

Small organisms exchange these essential and waste substances between

themselves and the environment. They do this over their body surface.
Simple chemical substances can diffuse in and out of their bodies.

Inside their bodies, in small organisms, substances don't have to move far.
The size of their surface, or surface area, defines how quickly they can
absorb substances. The size of their volume defines how much of these
substances they need.
Modelling cells
If we represent the cell of an organism by a
cube:
This is what happens when the cube increases
in size:

As the volume increases, surface area

does not increase at the same rate.

As multicellular organisms increase in

size, they face two problems:
 Surface area to volume ratio

Solution to the problem

Problem

Their surface area does not increase as Insufficient surface area to meet their Body systems that add additional
fast as the volume needs absorbing area to exchange surfaces

Diffusion is not quick enough to move

Their volume increases substances to where they're needed in A transport system
the organism's body
Exchange Surfaces

Single-celled organisms have relative large surface area to volume ratios.

Larger multicellular organisms have smaller surface area to volume ratios.

So, they have evolved exchange surfaces to exchange molecules with their
surroundings.
Exchange Surfaces

The effectiveness of exchange surfaces in plants and animals is increased by

having:

A large surface area:

Examples
 The flattened shape of structures such as leaves
 The alveoli in the respiratory system
 The villi In the digestive system
Exchange Surfaces

A short distance required for diffusion:

Examples
 The membranes of cells.
 The flattened shape of structures such as leaves.
 The walls of blood capillaries are one cell thick.
 The epithelia of alveoli in the respiratory system and the villi in the small
intestine are only one cell thick.
Diffusion, Osmosis and
Active Transport
Transport in cells
Semi/Selective/Differentially Permeability

Diffusion and osmosis are important in helping cells to create

homeostasis, a stable internal environment, inside of the cell
membrane.

In these different types of diffusion, the cell's membranes

selectively permeable, which means the cell membrane helps
control what materials enter and exit the cell.
Experiment to observe permeability

We can demonstrate selective permeability by creating model cells

using dialysis tubing (visking tubing), a material used in hospitals to
mimic kidney function in patients that have kidney disease.

Dialysis tubing is selectively permeable to common organic

molecules based on size. Molecules (like glucose and water) and
ions (like sodium) pass through readily, while large molecules (like
sucrose) do not.
Concentration and Concentration Gradients

The idea of concentrations and the gradients within them is important

when understanding the movement of particles or molecules across
cell membranes.

When sucrose is dissolved in water, the solute (the dissolved substance

in solution) is sucrose and water is the solvent (The liquid in which the
solute dissolves to form a solution). Together they form a solution.

The more sucrose particles there are in a certain volume of the

solution, the more concentrated the solution is.
Concentration and Concentration Gradients

A solution with a low solute concentration has a high water concentration.

Pure water has the highest water concentration.

A concentration gradient exists when there is a region of high concentration

leading to a region of low concentration:

1. Going from high to low concentration is going down the concentration

gradient.
2. Going from low to high concentration is going against the concentration
gradient.
Diffusion

Diffusion is the natural movement of particles from an area of

higher concentration to an area of lower concentration due to
random molecular motion.
In this definition, pay close attention to the word natural. Diffusion
requires no energy expenditure, the motion occurs naturally
because of the basic principles of random particle motion.
Concentration is the amount of solute that is dissolved into a
solvent. Diffusion is not only an important concept used in biology,
but is also an important concept used in chemistry and physics.
Types of Diffusion

Diffusion can be one of two types of diffusion, simple diffusion or

facilitated diffusion.

What is simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?

Simple and Facilitated Diffusion

 Facilitated diffusion uses help to move particles through a

semipermeable membrane. This help is provided by protein
channels, which are a type of gate or pathway through the
membrane. Facilitated diffusion only occurs if the particles
match the protein channel, so that they may be allowed
through the membrane
 Simple diffusion is when help of a protein channel is not
needed. Simple diffusion occurs directly through the
semipermeable membrane.
Osmosis

Osmosis is very similar to diffusion, as it is also considered to be

passive transport, but in the case of osmosis it is water molecules
that move from higher to lower concentration.

In osmosis, the movement of the water must be through a

membrane or it is not considered osmosis.
Active Transport

Active transport is the process of moving particles from an area

of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. In
other words, it is a backwards flow as compared to that of
diffusion and requires an input of energy into the system to
accomplish the movement.

Therefore, diffusion is considered passive transport and requires

no energy for particle movement.
Some factors that affect rate of diffusion

 The rate at which diffusion will occur is affected by several

factors:
 Difference in concentration levels
 Temperature
 Water potential
 Surface area
Factors affecting diffusion and osmosis: Concentration
gradient and water potential

The difference in concentration levels will affect the rate of diffusion.

The concentration gradient is an important concept in diffusion. The
concentration gradient is the difference in the number of a specific
molecule between two areas, i.e. an area of higher concentration and an
area of concentration.
A concentration gradient can be compared to an incline or hill, in which
areas of molecules of higher concentration flow downward toward the
bottom, towards areas of lower concentration.
Factors affecting diffusion and osmosis: Concentration
gradient and water potential

The greater the difference in concentration gradient, the steeper the

incline is and the faster molecules diffuse, toward the areas of lower
concentration.
The greater the concentration gradient, the greater the rate of
osmosis (or likeliness that water will move from one area to
another).
This is called water potential represented by the symbol Psi.
Factors affecting diffusion: Surface Area

Diffusion and osmosis are directly affected by the ratio of a cell's volume to its
surface area. An increase in this ratio means an increase in the rate of diffusion.
Why?
Remember the cubes from the previous lesson.
A smaller cube will have higher surface area to volume ratio than a larger cube.
This means that more of the cell's interior is exposed to molecules outside of
the cell.
The opposite is true in larger cells - less of the cell's interior is close to the cell's
environment. These differences mean both more and faster diffusion occurs in
smaller cells than in larger cells.
Factors affecting diffusion: Temperature

Diffusion occurs because of the continued random kinetic motion of

particles, a process that can also be affected by the temperature of a
system.
The greater the temperature, the greater the kinetic energy and rate in
which the particles will collide and move down the concentration gradient.
Homework

Give 3 examples of diffusion and osmosis in cells.

Define the terms:

1. Hypotonic solution
2. Hypertonic solution
3. Isotonic solution
4. Flaccid
5. Turgid
6. Turgor(Pressure)
Hypotonic, Isotonic and Hypertonic Solutions

Three terms—hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic—are used to describe

whether a solution will cause water to move into or out of a cell:
A solution will be hypertonic to a cell if its solute concentration is higher than
that inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane.
If the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside the cell, and the
solutes cannot cross the membrane, then that solution is hypotonic to the cell.
If the solute concentration outside the cell is the same as inside the cell, and
the solutes cannot cross the membrane, then that solution is isotonic to the cell.
Turgidity, Flaccidity, And Plasmolysis

Turgidity is the state of being turgid or swollen, especially due to high fluid content.
Turgidity helps to explain how plant cells are able to stand upright despite the lack
of a skeletal structural framework that animals have. Also, it confers rigidity to
plants.
Turgidity in plants is made possible by the presence of the cell wall and the
osmoregulatory function of the vacuole.
The cell wall protects the cell from cell lysis due to high water influx while the
vacuole regulates solute concentration to stimulate the osmosis of water into and
out of the cell.
Turgidity, Flaccidity, And Plasmolysis

A plasmolyzed plant cell has gaps between the cell wall and the cell membrane.
This occurs when a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution. Water molecules
move out of the cell resulting in the loss of turgor pressure.
A flaccid plant cell is not swollen and the cell membrane does not press against the
cell wall tightly.
This occurs when a plant cell is placed in an isotonic solution. There would be no
net movement of water molecules between the cell and the surrounding fluid. This
also occurs in a slightly hypertonic solution.
A turgid cell is a cell that has turgor pressure. A plant cell that is placed in a
hypotonic solution would cause the water to move into the cell by osmosis,
resulting in large turgor pressure being exerted against the plant cell wall.
Animal cells also take in and lose water by osmosis and will also change size and
shape when put into solutions that are at a different concentration to the cell
contents, however as animal cells lack a cell wall, animal cells will therefore either:

 lose water and shrink

 gain water, swell and burst
Homework

Revise the slides for your next test!

GOOD LUCK!
End
THANK YOU!