MORAL

ACCOUNTABILI
TY
Chapter 4
 THE MODIFIERS OF HUMAN
ACTS
A voluntary act is under the control of the intellect and will of
person. There are, however, factors that may influence the
intellect and will so that actions are not perfectly voluntary.
These factors are called modifiers of human. Because they
interfere with the application of the intellect and will, they
either reduce or increase accountability. The moral axiom is:
 THE MODIFIERS OF HUMAN
ACTS
The greater the knowledge and the freedom, the greater the
voluntariness and therefore, the accountability (Panizo: 38)

The following are the modifiers of the human act: (1)

Ignorance, (2) Passions, (3) Fear, (4) Violence, and
(5) Habit.
 IGNORANCE

Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to

possess. A lawyer is expected to know the law; the doctor, the
cure of illnesses, and the manager, his business operations. In
the realm of morals, every one normal person who has attained
the age of reason, approximately seven (7) years old, is
expected to know the general norms of proper conduct and
behavior.
 IGNORANCE
Ignorance is either vincible or invincible. Vincible ignorance is one
which can easily be corrected through ordinary diligence. Not
knowing the time or the name of a seatmate is vincible ignorance.
Invincible ignorance is one which is not easily remedied, because the
person is either not aware of his state of ignorance, or, being aware of
it, does not have the means to rectify such ignorance. The waiter who
serves contaminated food without being aware of the fact has
invincible ignorance. The police may have invincible ignorance about
the perpetrator of a crime.
 IGNORANCE
A vincible ignorance which is intentionally kept in an effort to
escape responsibility is called affected ignorance. An employee acts
with affected ignorance when he refuses to heed the instruction of his
supervisor. A moral axiom that states "Ignorance of the law excuses
no one" means one should not act in the state of ignorance and one
who has done wrong may not claim ignorance as a defense. A driver
who does not know the traffic rules deserves a heavy penalty.
 IGNORANCE PRINCIPLES:

1)Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A person is not

morally liable if he not aware of his state of ignorance. Persons in this
situation are said to be "acting in good faith", and their wrongdoings
are regarded as "honest mistakes". Such is the case of a hunter who
accidentally shot a farmer whom he mistook for a boar.
 IGNORANCE PRINCIPLES:

2)Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the voluntariness

and the corresponding accountability over an act. Once a person
becomes aware of his state of ignorance, he should make an effort to
remedy it. To act without being sure of relevant facts is to act
imprudently. A doctor may be guilty of gross negligence when he
prescribes the wrong medicine to a patient.
 IGNORANCE PRINCIPLES:

3)Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, increases the

accountability of an act. Because affected ignorance interferes with
the intellect, it decreases voluntariness. But because it is maliciously
kept, it increases accountability. A person who prefers to remain
ignorant in order to escape responsibility does not deserve kindness.
 PASSIONS

Passions, or concupiscence, are psychic responses. They are

either tendencies towards desirable objects, or tendencies away
from undesirable objects. The former is considered positive
emotions, such as love, desire, delight, hope and bravery. The
latter are negative emotions, such as hatred, horror, sadness,
despair, fear and anger.
 PASSIONS

In relation to actions, passions are either antecedent or

consequent. Antecedent passion comes as a natural reaction to an
object or stimulus without being aroused intentionally. It precedes
any act, thus it is called "antecedent". It is antecedent passion
when we feel happy in the company of a friend. Consequent
passion, on the other hand, is the result of an act which causes it to
be aroused. Reading pornography, for instance, arouses sexual
desires.
 PASSIONS

In themselves, passions are not evil. However, because they

predispose a person to act, they need to be subjected to the control
of reason.
 PASSIONS PRINCIPLES:

1) Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but

they diminish accountability over an act. Antecedent passion
weakens will power without completely blocking it. Thus, the so
called "crimes of passion" are voluntary.
 PASSIONS PRINCIPLES:

2) Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, and may even

increase accountability. This is because consequent passions are
the direct result of the will consenting to them, instead of
subordinating them to the control of reason.
 FEAR
Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by a
danger to himself or loved ones.
There is a difference between acting with fear and acting out of fear.
Some actions which are difficult or dangerous are done with fear. New
experiences such as embarking on a long trip, being left alone in the
dark, or speaking in front of a crowd, make some people nervous and
fearful. These actions are done with fear. It is acting out of fear, when
fear causes a person to act, like to jump from the top floor of a burning
building.
 FEAR PRINCIPLES:
1) Acts done with fear are voluntary and are accountable.
2) Acts done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary, although it
is also conditionally voluntary. It is simply voluntary because the person
remains in control of his faculties. It is, however, conditionally
voluntary, because if it were not for the presence of a danger, the person
would not have acted.
Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act. Legally
and morally speaking, actions done out of fear because an unjust
situation are invalid acts. Thus, contracts entered into by a party because
of fear is null and void (Paul Glenn: 41-42).
 VIOLENCE

Violence is any physical force exerted on a person by a free agent for

the purpose of compelling said person to act against his will. Insults,
torture, isolation, starvation, and mutilation are examples of violence.
 VIOLENCE PRINCIPLES:

1) External, or commanded acts, performed by a person subjected to

violence, to which reasonable resistance has been offered, are
involuntary and not accountable.
2) Elicited acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to
violence and are therefore voluntary.
 VIOLENCE PRINCIPLES:

Active resistance should always be exerted to ward off any unjust

aggressor. However, if resistance is impossible, or if there is a serious
threat to one's life, a person confronted by violence can always offer
internal resistance by withholding consent. This is enough to save one's
moral integrity (Panizo:37).
 VIOLENCE PRINCIPLES:
The Will is a spiritual faculty is not within the reach of violence. There
are thousand martyrs who had suffered death instead of surrendering
their will to their tormentors. We may not be too harsh on those whom
we consider villains or weaklings, those who succumbed to the vile
wishes of their oppressors. "Violence of force", says Bernard Haring, "in
any instance, if bound up with the refined cruelty of present-day methods
of psychological torture, can constitute a serious temptation and often
also contribute towards a notable diminution of inner freedom" (Haring:
108).
 HABITS

Habit is the readiness, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a

certain manner. Habits are acquired through the repetition of an act over
a period of time. They are either good or bad. Habits become like second
nature, moving one to do something with relative ease without much
reflection. They are difficult to overcome.
 HABITS PRINCIPLE:

Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a

reasonable effort is made to counteract the inclination.
 HABITS PRINCIPLE:

Habits are voluntary in cause, because they are the result of previously
willed acts done repeatedly over a period of time. Thus, every action
resulting from habit partakes of the voluntariness of those previous
repeated acts. However, when a person exerts consistent efforts to
counteract the habit, the actions resulting from such habit are regarded as
acts of man and therefore, not accountable.
 ACTION AND EMOTION
Man is not a robot devoid of feelings. Every human act involves a person
emotionally. Thus, we pray fervently, we work earnestly, we play
eagerly, we eat heartily, or we live happily. The Decalogue enjoins us to
love God with all our heart and with all our soul”.
Emotions are natural and beneficial. The positive tendencies of love,
kindness, humility, reverence, and justice express approval of what is
good and worthy in an object. The negative tendencies of anger, horror,
and hatred express disapproval and repudiation of evil as such.
 ACTION AND EMOTION
Man is not a robot devoid of feelings. Every human act involves a person
emotionally. Thus, we pray fervently, we work earnestly, we play
eagerly, we eat heartily, or we live happily. The Decalogue enjoins us to
love God with all our heart and with all our soul”.
Emotions are natural and beneficial. The positive tendencies of love,
kindness, humility, reverence, and justice express approval of what is
good and worthy in an object. The negative tendencies of anger, horror,
and hatred express disapproval and repudiation of evil as such.
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