Module 4 - Vehicle performance, safety & modern

trends
• Vehicle performance parameters, road resistance, traction and
tractive effort, power requirement for propulsion, road
performance curves(Numerical treatment expected),
• Stability of vehicles, roll over safety regulations, Vehicle safety-
active, passive safety, air bags, seat belt, Vehicle interior and
ergonomics, comfort, NVH in automobiles,
• electrical car layout, hybrid vehicles, Solar operated vehicle,
• measuring instruments for wear, speed, acceleration, vibration,
noise.
 Vehicle performance parameter
• The performance of vehicle is determined by following
parameter
1. Resistance
a. Aerodynamic
b. Rolling
c. Grade
2. Tractive Effort
1. Maximum Tractive Effort
2. Engine Generated Tractive Effort
3. Acceleration
4. Braking
1. Stopping Sight Distance
• Primary opposing forces
• Resistance (N): Force impeding vehicle motion
• Tractive Effort (N): Force available at the roadway surface
to perform work
• Sum forces on the vehicle
F  ma  Ra  Rrl  Rg
 Aerodynamic Resistance Ra
• Air resistance -It is resistance offered by air to the forward movement of vehicle. This
resistance has an influence on performance, ride and stability of the vehicle. Wind or air
resistance depends upon speed, shape of the vehicle body and wind velocity.
Composed of:
1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and air vents(3%)

Ra  CD A f V 2

from National Research Council Canada

Power required to overcome Ra
 • Power
PRa  CD Af V 3  work/time
 force*distance/time
2  Ra*V
 Rolling Resistance Rrl
• Rolling resistance - It is resistance caused by friction between road and tyres which opposes
the motion of the vehicle. The magnitude of rolling resistance depends mainly on the nature
of road surface, the types of tyres, the weight of the vehicle and the speed of the vehicle.
Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (90%)
2. Tire penetration and surface compression ( 4%)
3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel ( 6%)
4. Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance
5. Simplifying approximation:
 V 
Rrl  f rlW f rl  0.011 
 147 

Power required to overcome rolling resistance
PR rl  f rlWV
 Grade or Gradient Resistance Rg
The grade angle that the vehicle can negotiate at a certain constant speed. For heavy
commercial vehicles the gradeability is usually defined as the maximum grade angle that the
vehicle can overcome in the whole speed range. Composed of
– Gravitational force acting on the vehicle
– The component parallel to the roadway
θg
Rg  W sin  g
For small angles, sin  g  tan  g
Rg
Rg  W tan g
tan  g  G
θg W
Rg  WG
G=grade, vertical rise per horizontal distance (generally specified as %)
 Traction
The condition of friction as between the tyre and the surface
of the roadway, the holding of the tyre on the roadway, the
ability to transmit power from the tyre to the roadway.
OR
The ability of the drive wheels to transmit tractive effort
without slipping is know as
traction
Tractive efforts
The force available at the contact between the drive wheel
tyres and road is known as
tractive effort.
 Available Tractive Effort
The minimum of:
1. Force generated by the engine, Fe
2. Maximum value that is a function of the vehicle’s
weight distribution and road-tire interaction, Fmax

Available tractive effort  min Fe , Fmax 

 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort
• Force Fe = Engine generated tractive effort
reaching wheels (lb)

M e 0 d Me = Engine torque (ft-lb)

Fe  ε0 = Gear reduction ratio
r ηd = Driveline efficiency
r = Wheel radius (ft)

Engine Generated Tractive Effort: Power

torque
power   torque  engine speed  2
time
2M e ne
Pe 
1000
Tractive Effort
Relationships
Typical Torque-Power Curves
 Acceleration Performance
• The acceleration of a vehicle is defined by its
acceleration time and distance covered from
zero speed to a certain high speed on a level
ground. The acceleration of the vehicle can be
expressed as

Governing Equation :
F   R   m ma
 Braking
• Maximum braking force occurs when the tires
are at a point of impending slide.
– Function of roadway condition
– Function of tire characteristics
• Maximum vehicle braking force (Fb max) is
– coefficient of road adhesion () multiplied by the
vehicle weights normal to the roadway surface
 Road performance curves
1. Road speed vs power available at wheels
• The variation of full-throttle
power available at the wheels
for four gear ratios with road
speed. A curve, showing the
power required by vehicle at
various road speeds is also
presented.
At any speed, the difference of
ordinates of power available
and power required by vehicle
gives the surplus power, which
can be utilized for acceleration
or tractive effort.
Road speed vs tractive effort.
• Vehicle safety
 Vehicle safety measures can be divided into active and passive safety
 Safety in the context of design for the avoidance of accidents is called active safety

Active safety, is obtained by optimizing braking, ride, road holding, steering and handling

 Safety in the context for the protection of the occupants and pedestrians from serious injury if
they are involved in accidents is called passive safety

Passive safety can be sub-divided into two categories: safety for the occupants and safety for
pedestrians struck by the car.
 Crash testing
 MIRA (Motor industry research association) was the first to develop a system on a CD ROM for displaying
numeric and photographic data side by side

 This has the advantage that the numerical data, usually presented in graphical form, can be instantly correlated with
what actually happened inside the car

 From the enormous amount of data available in this laboratory, programs can be set up for crash testing by
computer-aided simulation

 MIRA was the first to use X-ray imaging of crash tests, at 1000 frames/second (fps) in 1.2 0.8 m format

 This type of imaging is especially useful for viewing regions where conventional cameras cannot access. It can
show details of, for example, foot well intrusion and precisely how the legs of occupants might be injured in a
crash
Front impact assessment

 Propelling the vehicle onto a rigid concrete barrier is used to asses steering wheel deflection (Fig. a).
However this test is only a rough guide for survivability of occupants since the vehicle rarely collides a
rigid concrete block
 An aluminium honeycomb block is fixed to the face of the concrete barrier against which the car is
propelled. This test is designed to assess the effects of the much more common type of crash, in which one
vehicle hits another while overtaking.

 The function of the honeycomb is to simulate penetration into the front crush zone of a vehicle being
struck
Side impact assessment

 To represent the varying stiffness's at different heights of the vehicle that is struck, the density of layers of the
honeycomb structure is increased at the heights of the bumper and front edge of the bonnet lid, as can be seen
from the set-up for side impact testing
 This test calls for not only adult dummies to be belted into the front seats but also child dummies in the rear.
Moreover, instead of assessing only the effects of the crash on the vehicle, those on the occupants must be
measured too. Pass/fail criteria have been specified for different areas of each dummy
 Side impact assessment
 For the side impact test the side of the car to be tested has to be struck at a
speed of 50 km/h by a mock-up representing the front end of another car.

 The mock-up is mounted on a sled and propelled along the track used for
front end crash testing. However, this procedure is costly so, for development
testing without incurring the costs associated with a full scale test in
accordance with the regulations.

 MIRA has developed what they term their HyGe test rig. A dummy front end
can be mounted on a sled and propelled towards the side of the vehicle that is
undergoing the test

 The relevant structures to be tested are mounted on the sled and propelled
towards the rigid barrier to which can be fixed an appropriate target object. A
maximum acceleration of 100g is obtainable, although 40g is more usual. The
sled can be accelerated to speeds as high as 104 km/h, although 56 km/h is
more commonly required
Protection of occupants:

 Majority of tests are undertaken covering a wide variety

of crash circumstance as shown in figure

 Impacts at lower speeds also produce serious hazards. This

is because the crush characteristics of the vehicle structure
may be significantly different from those at high speeds.

 Furthermore, the effects of slack seat belts can be different

at low speeds, and there is more time available for the
occupant to accelerate before being restrained by them
 Additional tests done by MIRA for various manufacturers
include impacts between moving vehicles and poles,
impacts of occupants on interior components drop tests,
air bag deployment, fire tests
Some of the tests done by manufacturers to ensure that the occupants
of their vehicles will be, so far as is practicable, safe in the event of
an accident. At (a) is the simple basic zero offset frontal impact, at
(b) is a 30° offset, at (c) a 40% offset and at (d) a pole impact test. A
side impact test for representing an impact between two vehicles
moving along lines at right angles to each other is shown at (e) while,
at (f), the vehicle that is struck is stationary. Finally, a rear end
impact test is shown at (g)
Testing for occupant safety:

A range of male and female child and adult Experts assessing the performance of a
Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATVs) ranging BMW bonnet when struck by a fully
in weight up to 14 stone (90 kg) is used by instrumented dummy head.
MIRA.
 For testing in general, a wide range of human dummies, termed Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) up to
14 stone (90 kg) and 6 ft 2½ in (1.89 m), is available
 The term anthropomorphic implies that, when subjected to impacts, their reactions and movements are
representative of those of live humans. Consequently they have a steel skeleton in which the critical parts,
such as the spine, necks and ribs (Fig. a) are sprung and damped.
 The legs and arms articulate about their joints, like those of their human counterparts. To simulating the
flesh, a foamed plastics material covers the whole of this basic structure
Testing for occupant safety:
 Frontal impact crash test dummies contain up to 33 transducers for measuring accelerations, displacements and
forces. These include three acceleration sensors in the head, and three in the pelvis region.

 Some of the dummies are equipped with as many as twenty acceleration and bending load sensors in their
upper and lower legs

 After each test, the dummies are recalibrated at a controlled temperature. This is because temperature affects
damping. Then, after every five to ten tests, they are stripped down and minutely examined for wear or
damage that would affect their performance, and then recalibrated
Protection of pedestrians from serious injury:
 Pedestrians struck by the front ends of cars are particularly
vulnerable in three regions: the upper leg, the lower leg and the
head

 To assess the effectiveness of lids in decelerating the heads gently

enough to avoid brain damage, the dummy heads are fully
instrumented with triaxial accelerometers.

 These indicate the rates of deceleration experienced by the

dummy heads when they are propelled at predetermined speeds, The Head Impact Test System (HITS) rig used by
by an air-actuated gun, at the lids MIRA for assessing the occupant-friendliness of
interior components and trim.

 Propulsion by air-actuated gun is also used to determine the

deceleration and bending forces to which the upper (femoral) and
lower part of the leg are subjected in an accident.
Salient features of active safety:
 Active safety entails, in effect, rendering the vehicle inherently safe before it occurs

 If the ride is good and the road holding is such that the wheels never lose contact with the ground, the
driver will more easily be able to maintain control in difficult circumstances, including in an emergency

 As regards handling, there should be no sudden changes in either steering or braking characteristics. For
example, some slight oversteer may be desirable, but it
should not occur suddenly, nor should there be a change from under to oversteer, or vice versa, while the
car is cornering
 An important aspect of design for active safety is the minimization of driver stress and fatigue. Another
is provision for warning the driver of danger as early as possible before the situation becomes critical.
To this end, good all-round visibility and efficient lighting at night are, for instance, two of the measures
that can be taken

 Installation of devices such as electronic detection systems for warning the driver that
he is becoming drowsy: some of these depend on the monitoring of eyelid movements and others of pulse
and steering wheel movements

 The design should be such that, should the car become involved in an accident, its occupants will be, so far
as practicable, protected from injury due to collapse of the structure
Structural safety and air bags:
 Automobile basic structures must be designed to collapse in a controlled manner in an accident

 A prime consideration is to prevent the steering wheel from being thrust back and crushing or penetrating the
driver’s chest or neck or, perhaps, even breaking his jaw.

 Among the measures originally adopted were the inclusion of telescopic or concertina type collapsible
elements in the steering column
 The lower end of the steering column tube was coarsely perforated, so that it would collapse when
subjected to heavy axial loading

 Another of these measures was the incorporation of two universal joints, one at the lower end of a shortened
steering column shaft and the other on the steering box, the section between them being set at an angle relative
to the axis of the steering column. In the event of a front end impact, the section between the two universal
joints would displace laterally instead of pushing the upper part of the column back towards the driver

 increase the area of the hub of the wheel, to reduce the intensity of loading locally on the chest

 Reduce the stiffness of the rim of the wheel, so that, if the driver was thrown forward on to it, it yielded rather than
severely damaging his rib cage
 Air bags
 These are supplementary safety devices, as they are
effective only in conjunction with correctly adjusted seat
belts.
 They can be inflated by air but, to obtain rapid
deployment, inflation using chemicals producing nitrogen
or other gases are more commonly used.
 Correctly tensioning the belt is important, otherwise it will
fail to guide the driver in a manner such that his face
comes down on to the air bag instead of slithering over it
and striking hard objects beyond

 Air bags are installed behind a panel in the dash fascia,

and side air bags may be embodied in the seat squabs.
 An advantage of the latter site is that it moves with the
seat when its position is adjusted, so the bag can be
smaller than if it were stowed
Two Toyota gas bag installations: left, in the dash for the front seat
passenger and, right, in the steering wheel hub, for the driver. In both
instances, an electrically fired squib generates the heat to fire the pellets
which generate the gas. As the bags inflate, they push away the padded
trim panels beneath which they are housed
 In general, because the occupants’ heads start further away from the bags than do their shoulders, side bags at or
near shoulder height, for protection against side impacts, should open earlier than those for either window bags or
those for frontal impacts

 Toyota have developed a system in which pellets of a chemical that generates mostly argon gas are used for
inflation. The sensors are mounted low in the centre pillars and the air bags are stowed in the front seat squabs

 Since the primary impact may be over within 10 ms, all the bags have to deploy within 20–30 ms. To obtain rapid
deployment, most manufacturers employ pellets of sodium azide which, when heated, produce large quantities of
nitrogen to inflate the bags. Sodium azide is a salt of hydroazic acid (N 3H3)
 Initially, air bag deployment was mostly triggered by
deceleration force acting on some very simple form of
mechanism, such as a ball in a tube, mounted adjacent to, or
within, the steering wheel hub.

 Subsequently, electrically fired gas generators have been

triggered by computers in response to its receipt of appropriate
deceleration signals. The deceleration sensors are usually
mounted on a front transverse member of the vehicle structure.

 An advantage of this system is that the whole sub-assembly,

including the gas generator, can be housed compactly within the
steering wheel hub assembly, and the deceleration sensor can be
placed in any position where it will be most effective

 Perforations in all bags allow the gas to leak out at a rate that
increases with internal pressure, thus modifying their spring
rates so that the occupants’ heads do not rebound violently
Top, mechanically actuated bag firing mechanism: bottom,
electrically actuated alternative. The latter has the advantages
of greater compactness of the parts that may have to be
accommodated in the steering wheel hub and the sensors and
electronic control unit can be sited in the most appropriate
positions
Passenger compartment integrity

The compartment that houses the driver and passengers should remain intact after an accident

Four measures are necessary:

 one is to incorporate crush zones at the each end of the car

 the second is to stiffen the door and its immediate surroundings so that, in the event of a side impact, it will not
be penetrated or deflected violently inwards and strike the occupants

 third, the door trim must be soft or side air bags must be installed so that, if the occupants are flung against it by
the lateral acceleration, they will not be seriously injured

 fourth, the door frame and not only its joints but also those between the pillars and rail must be strong and stiff
enough to react elastically to absorb the shock loading

Ideally, the structure should collapse progressively at a

constant rate, as if it were a sprung buffer
Smart air bags:
The precise shape of the impact acceleration pulse plays an important role in deployment of air bag

 This is a function of the crush characteristics of the front end of the car. Then the characteristic of the
performance characteristics of the bags is ascertained, so that the deployment and collapse can be
synchronized with that of the pulse.

 Gas inflated bags deploy in about 20–30 ms, but they have perforations in them so that they
subsequently deflate to enable the driver to maintain control after the impact

 Smart air bags comprise of computerized controls for regulating not only the deployment, but also the
tensioning of the seat belts.

 Signals transmitted to the computer include seat belt tension, rapidity of brake application and the
deceleration detected by a sensor mounted on a front transverse member of the structure of the vehicle

 Compartmented air bags have been produced that could be selectively inflated, according to the
severity and direction of the impact, and perhaps the weight of the occupant of the seat
Seat belts:
 When an electronic sensor detects an acceleration rapid enough to throw the
occupants violently forward out of
their seats, the electronic control causes gas at high
pressure to be released into a cylinder which is part of the
seat belt tensioning mechanism.

 A piston in this cylinder pulls a cable wound round the belt pulley, which it
rotates to pull the harness tight
 In the event of an impact, gas is discharged from the horizontal cylinder on the
right, into the chamber above the plunger, which it forces downwards.

 Dragging the pre-tensioner cable with it, the plunger thus pre-tensions the seat
belt for the duration of the impact, after which the tension is progressively
released as the gas escapes through the clearances round the cable and plunger.

 Subsequently, the gas escapes through the clearances around the piston and
cable rapidly enough to release the tension so that the occupants can, for
example in the event of a fire, immediately unlatch their harnesses and
escape
Improvement of active safety :

Active safety embraces the ergonomic design of the vehicle for ease of control by the driver without his becoming
fatigued, as well as the more obvious features such as harmonization of the steering, braking, tyres suspension and
handling characteristics, to reduce the likelihood of his losing control.

There are five main requirements

 While the motorist is at the wheel, he can readily verify that driving conditions are safe

 In every situation, all control responses should be proportional to the driver’s input

 The Vehicle must be dynamically stable

 Drivers must be able to recognize when limits of stability are approached

 NVH in Automobile
Noise, vibration and harshness
Noise in automobile
 Self learning
• electrical car layout,
• hybrid vehicles
• Solar operated vehicle