Unit 7:

Motivation Emotion and

Personality
7.1 Theories of Motivation
7.2 Motivation Systems
7.3 Theories of Emotions
7.4 Stress and Coping
7.6a Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality - Freud
7.6b Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality - Neo Freudians
7.7 Social Cognitive Theory of Personality
7.8 Humanistic Psychology
7.9 Trait Theories
7.10 Tests of Personality
MrGalusha.org
7.1 Theories of Motivation

Instinct
Drive
Drive Reduction Theory
Homeostasis
Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Hierarchy of Needs
Self-actualization
Incentives
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Overjustification Effect
Motives vs. Emotions
• Motive
– Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or
achievement, that prompts goal-directed behavior
– a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs
it towards a goal.
• Motives are different from emotions
– Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies
behavior
• You are more likely to predict behavior that results from a
motive than an emotion. 3
 Instincts are for animals NOT humans.
• Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed
patterns throughout the species and are not learned
(Tinbergen, 1951).

Outline
Humans don’t have instincts
Humans don’t have instincts
• This theory fell out of favor in psychology
• A Meta-analysis during the height of this craze found 5759
‘instincts’
• Most important human behaviors are learned
• Human behavior is rarely inflexible and found throughout
the species
• Humans have reflexes but not instincts.
• However, we may be predisposed to act certain ways due
to adaptations from ancestral past– See Evolutionary
6
Psychology
Motives
Step 1: a need or desire that energizes
behavior (we call these drives)
Step 2: directs it towards a goal
Biological Drives (Primary Drives)
• Unlearned drive based on a physiological state found in all
animals
• Motivate behavior necessary for survival (fighting and fleeing –
controlled by a brain region called the amygdala).
• Many drives are initiated in the Hypothalamus
– Hunger
– Thirst
– Sex
• Evolutionary psychology talks about the four Fs (fighting, fleeing,
feeding and reproducing).
Homeostasis – explains why we stop fulfilling biological
drives.

• The ability or tendency of an

organism to maintain internal
equilibrium or balance.
• A state of psychological
equilibrium obtained when
tension or a drive has been
reduced or eliminated.
• We fulfill drives until we reach
homeostasis (balance)
Secondary Drives – These are not
biologically dictated
• Learned drives
• Wealth
• Success
• Fame
Primary vs. Secondary Drives
• Primary (Biological) Drives push us to
act.
• Secondary Drives pull at our actions.
• When BOTH are combined we are
highly motivated.
 How do we even learn
those secondary drives?
Operant Conditioning
• Your behavior is motivated to get
rewards or to avoid punishment.
Go to
work
Come home
at curfew
Now let’s talk about the goals
Incentives!
• Incentives – environmental cues that trigger
a motive(desire) for a reward.
• When a stimulus in your environment
creates goal-directed behavior.
Two General Types of Rewards

•INtrinsic – from the action

itself or from within

•EXtrinsic – for
something else
Intrinsic Motivators
• Refers to motivation that comes from inside an
individual rather than from any external or
outside rewards, such as money or grades.
• It is stronger than external motivation
Extrinsic Motivators
• Refers to motivation that comes from
external or outside rewards, such as
money or grades.
Theories of Motivation

1. Drive-Reduction Theory
2. Arousal Theory
3. Hierarchy of Motives

20
Drive-Reduction Theory
• A physiological need creates an
aroused tension state (a primary drive)
• This tension motivates an organism to
satisfy the need

ns ion
Te

21
Drive Reduction
● The goal of drive reduction is homeostasis (the
maintenance of a steady internal state – balance.)

Drive
Food
Reduction

Empty Stomach
Stomach Full
(Food Deprived)
22
Organism
 Drive Reduction Theory
• Strengths
– Does a nice job explaining most primary drives
• Falls apart with more complex primary drives and
with most secondary drives

Outline
Arousal Theory
• Arousal means a level of alertness and attentiveness
• Arousal theory says we week the best level of alertness
for us at any given time
– Sometimes we want lots of arousal
– Sometimes we want very low arousal

• Some of us tend to want more and some of us tend to

want less.
Arousal Theory
• People do things in order to seek out an optimal level
of excitement at any given moment.
• I want a high level or arousal – let’s do something epic
tonight.
• I want a low level of arousal – let’s stay in tonight.
• I am bored with my life I need a new job.
• I am stressed at work, let’s take a vacation.

25
Yerkes-Dodson Law
– States that if you want to perform well at a task you have to
look at two things: the difficulty of the task and your arousal
level.
– Difficult tasks are best with moderate arousal
– Simple tasks are best with higher arousal
 Arousal Theory
• Strengths
– Does a nice job explaining most secondary
drives.
• Weakness
– Doesn’t show how we prioritize our motives . . .

Outline
Hierarchy of Needs
• Abraham Maslow
(1970)
• He created categories of
needs
• He suggested that
certain needs have
priority over others.

(1908-1970)
28
Hierarchy of Needs

29
 Maslow’s Hierarchy
• Strengths
– Shows how we prioritize our motives
– Explains why some people can forego basic
needs
• Weakness
– Not based on empirical research

Outline
7.2 Specific Topics in Motivation

Glucose/Insulin
Leptin
Lateral Hypothalamus
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Satiety

Sex
Androgens
Estrogen
Sexual Response Cycle
7.2
• Motivation Systems
– Thirst
– Hunger
– Sex
Thirst
• Biology of Thirst
– Hypothalamus helps monitor the level of fluids inside
the cells
– When levels drop, the thirst drive is activated
– Environmental cues (incentives) can also activate this
drive.
– We would explain this using the Drive Reduction
Theory
Summary
The Biology of Hunger
Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the
brain making us aware of our hunger.
Stomachs Removed
Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the
esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still
felt hungry (and ate food).
Glucose: C6H12O6
The glucose level in blood is maintained by your
pancreas. Insulin decreases glucose in the blood,
when the level gets too low, we feel hungry.

Glucose
Glucose & the Brain
Levels of glucose in the
blood are monitored by
receptors (neurons) in
the stomach, liver, and
intestines. They send
signals to the Rat
Hypothalamus
hypothalamus in the
brain.
 Hypothalamic Centers
•The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger
(when stimulated lab animals ate!).
•Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in
eating.
•The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin
in the LH, which leads one to eat
 Hypothalamic Centers
•The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses
hunger (satiety)
•Destroy the VMH, and the animal eats excessively.

Howard
Richard
Leptin
• Fat cells in our body produce leptin
• Hypothalamus monitors these levels
• High levels of leptin signal the brain to reduce
appetite or increase the rate at which fat is
burned.
• Leptin deficiency can cause obesity
Serotonin
• Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that among other
things, acts as appetite suppressant.
• It curbs cravings and shuts off appetite.
• It is a natural mood regulator, serotonin makes you feel
emotionally stable, less anxious, more tranquil and
even more focused and energetic.
• Serotonin can be made only after sweet or starchy
carbohydrates are eaten
 Biology of Hunger

● Body - Stomach Contractions

● Brain - Hypothalamus
○ Lateral Hypothalamus - hunger center
○ Ventromedial Hypothalamus - satiety center (full)
● Body Chemicals
○ Glucose - low levels cause hunger
○ Leptin - high levels make you feel full
○ Orexin - neurotransmitter that in the LH that causes hunger
○ Serotonin- neurotransmitter that can decrease appetite in high
quantities.
The Psychology of Hunger
•Incentives (environmental cues) can trigger the
biological responses
•Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due
to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat
frequently if given food (Rodin et al., 1998).
•Emotional attachment? (Serotonin)
•Social expectations
•Conditioning
•Culture
Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?
Body chemistry and environmental factors
influence not only how much or when we feel
hunger but what we feel hungry for!

Black Star
Richard Olsenius/

Englebert
Victor
Hot Cultures like Hot Spices
Countries with hot climates use more
bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.
Diet Industry
• $78 Billion dollar a year industry
(including diet books, diet drugs and w
eight-loss surgeries.)
• 85% of customers are females
• It has a failure rate in the 90s.
Set-Point Theory
• According to the set-point theory, there is a control
system built into every person dictating how much fat
they should carry – a kind of thermostat for body fat.
• Some individuals have a high setting, others have a low
one.
• According to this theory, body fat percentage and
bodyweight are matters of internal controls that are set
differently in different people.
How to change the set point
• Dieting does nothing
• Dieting research demonstrates that the body has more than one way
to defend its fat stores.
• Long-term caloric deprivation, in a way that is not clear, acts as a signal
for the body to turn down its metabolic rate.
• The body reacts to stringent dieting as though famine has set in.
Within a day or two after semi-starvation begins, the metabolic
machinery shifts to a cautious regimen designed to conserve the
calories it already has on board. Because of this innate biological
response, dieting becomes progressively less effective,
• A plateau is reached at which further weight loss seems all but
impossible.
How to change the set point
• The ideal approach to weight control would be a safe
method that lowers or raises the set point rather than
simply resisting it.
• So far no one knows for sure how to change the set point,
but some theories exist.
– regular exercise is the most promising as a sustained
increase in physical activity seems to lower the setting
Messing with Set-Point
• Studies show that a person’s weight at the set
point is optimal for efficient activity and a stable,
optimistic mood.
• When the set point is driven too low, depression
and lethargy may set in as a way of slowing the
person down and reducing the number of calories
expended.
 Sexual Motivation
▪ Sex
▪ a physiologically based motive (testosterone, limbic
system, pheromones)
▪ but it is more affected by learning and values

53
Sexual Motivation
▪ Same drives, different attitudes

56
Sexual Motivation

▪ Births to
unwed
parents

57
Contrast Effect
• when partners view pictures of idealized individuals
(genetically rare, plastic surgery enhanced photoshopped
simulacra) they rate their own partners less positively.
• In an even more disturbing study, men reported lower
levels of LOVE and COMMITMENT to their current partners
after viewing Playboy centerfolds
7.3 Theories of Emotion

Emotion
James-Lange Theory
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Schachter’s Two Factor Theory
Canon-Bard Theory
Joseph LeDoux’s Theory
Primary Emotions
Display Rules
Microexpressions

F. Compare and contrast major theories of emotion.

G. Describe how cultural influences shape emotional
expression, including variations in body language.
Emotions

● A feeling such as happiness, sadness, anger, disgust,

surprise and fear
● It involves
○ 1. Bodily Reactions - a body reaction like your heart
racing
○ 2. Expressive behaviors - a smile
○ 3. Cognitions - thoughts about it happening
 It all starts with a stimulus

● A stimulus is any object or event that causes a

response
● After exposure to a stimulus, sensory signals are
transmitted to the thalamus.
● Once the thalamus receives the signal, it relays the
information to two structures: the amygdala and the
brain cortex.
○ Amygdala will control the body’s reaction
○ Brain cortex will start to think about the stimulus
 1. Bodily Reactions: Autonomic Nervous System

A division of our nervous system that

does two things:
- gets us ready to deal with times
of crisis and stress (sympathetic
nervous system)
- calms us down when we no
longer need to deal with that
emergency (parasympathetic
nervous system)
It is activated by a distress signal from
the amygdala
2. Expressive Behaviors
 3. Cognitions

● It may be consciously labeling something

● It may also occur automatically as we mentally file
something as dangerous or not dangerous (appraisal)
 Sensory input can get routed in two ways

High Road - Cognitions Low Road - Bodily Reactions

- Stimulus goes to the
thalamus and then gets sent
to the brain’s cortex so you
can think about it and then
send it to the amygdala if it
looks dangerous
- Stimulus goes to the
thalamus and then gets sent
to the amygdala to allow for
a quicker response
High Road Low Road
What causes our emotions?
Does your bodily reaction cause them?
Maybe your thoughts cause them?
 Opposites

James Lange Theory Cognitive Appraisal (Lazarus)

● Emotions are caused by our ● Emotions are caused by our
body’s having a reaction to a thinking (appraisal) (conscious
stimulus. or not) about a stimulus

Stimulus -> Cognition -> Emotion

Stimulus -> Body Reaction -> Emotion
 Schachter’s Two Factor Theory

FACTOR 1 FACTOR 2
A Stimulus causes a Then we
bodily reaction interpret the
Emotion
situation
(cognitive
appraisal) and
label it.
 Cannon Bard Theory

● All this theory does is go against James Lange

● It says that your body does not cause the emotion. They happen
simultaneously and are NOT CONNECTED
● Your thalamus sends the signal to your amygdala for a bodily reaction
● And to the cerebral cortex causing the awareness of the emotion.
● Basically it says it follows the low and high roads but one does not cause
the other.
LeDoux’s Theory

● Fear provoking stimuli follow the

Low Road
● Thalamus to the amygdala for
immediate bodily reaction

Low Road
 Theories of Emotion

- James Lange Theory - Body causes emotion

- Cannon Bard - Body reaction and emotional awareness
happen simultaneously and independently of one another
- Cognitive Appraisal theory - Thinking causes emotion
- Schachter’s Two Factor Theory - Body and Thinking cause
emotion
- LeDoux Theory - fear-provoking stimuli travel the low road
 Primary Emotions

- Happy, Sad, Disgust, Fear, Anger,

and Surprise
- Found across all cultures
- Have a facial expression
associated with it across cultures
- Can also be seen in primates
 Display Rules

● social norms that distinguish how one should express

their emotions.
● Culturally prescribed rules that people learn early on
in their lives by interactions and socializations with
other people.
● Collectivistic cultures tend to have more display rules
(do not show disgust / do not smile showing your teeth
etc.)
 Micro Expressions

Micro expressions are facial expressions that occur

within a fraction of a second. This involuntary
emotional leakage exposes a person's true emotions.
 Studies to include

● James Lange-
○ Those with high-spinal cord injuries experience less intense emotions
vs. those with low-spinal cord injuries
○ Facial Feedback - your expressed emotion can slightly change your
mood
● Two Factor Theory
○ College students given epinephrine and put in a waiting room with a
person acting irritated felt irritated and those put with a person acting
happy felt happy.
7.4 Stress and Coping

Stress vs. Stressors

Conflicts
Approach-Approach Conflict
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
General Adaptation Syndrome
Richard Lazarus’s appraisal theory
Awfulization and Globalization

H1. Explain theories of stress and how unhelpful

cognitions can increase stress
H2. What effects can stress have on psychological and
physical well-being.
What are your SOURCES of stress?
We abuse this word!
What is stress?
• The process of appraising and responding to a real or
imagined threat.
• Stress is our reaction to something
• It is not something that is given to us.
• Our reaction can trigger the ANS “fight-or-flight”
response, causing hormones such as adrenaline and
cortisol to surge through the body.
 What we call ‘stress’ is really a process

Step 1 - Stressor
Step 2 - Appraisal
Step 3 - We experience stress
 Step 1: Like emotions we start with a stimulus (Stressor)

• Events/circumstances that are potentially

threatening.
• Just because you experience a stressor doesn’t
mean you will feel ‘stressed’
• How stressed you feel depends on your appraisal
of the situation. More on that in a second.
 Step 1: Types of Stressors

• Life changes • Frustration

• Everyday hassles – Occurs when a
– Pressure person is prevented
• Occurs when we feel forced to from reaching a
speed up or shift focus of our goal
behavior
– Delays
• Discrimination – Lack of Resources
 Step 1: Stressors- Conflicts
Simultaneous existence of incompatible demands, opportunities,
goals, or needs
– Approach/approach conflict occurs when there is a conflict between
two appealing possibilities
• Regret
– Avoidance/avoidance conflict occurs when there is a choice between
two undesirable possibilities
• Escape
– Approach/avoidance conflict is the result of being simultaneously
attracted to and repelled by the same goal
– Paralysis
 Step 2 Appraisal

• When we look at an event and see if it is good or bad and if

we have the resources necessary to overcome it.
 Richard Lazarus’s appraisal theory

● Stress arises less from events themselves than from how we

appraise (perceive or explain) them.

● For example, one person, alone in a house, ignores its creaking

sounds and experiences no stress; someone else suspects an
intruder and becomes alarmed.

● One person regards a new job as a welcome challenge; someone

else appraises it as risking failure.
 Appraisal

The events of our lives flow

through a psychological filter.
How we appraise an event
influences how much stress
we experience and how
effectively we respond.
 Types of Stress – Acute Stress
• Stress resulting from specific events or situations that
involve novelty, unpredictability, or a threat to you
physically.
• Fires the SNS
• Helps you deal with danger.
• Examples – almost getting into a car accident, giving a
public speech, playing a sport running from a Walker.
Types of Stress – Chronic Stress
• Response to emotional pressure suffered for a
prolonged period over which an individual perceives
he or she has no control. It involves an endocrine
system response in which occurs a release of
corticosteroids.
• This has long term negative effects on your health.
 Negative Explanatory Style

● Awfulization - this is a negative way of explaining stressors assuming

they will spiral out of control in the future to some horrible long-term
future consequence. The stress than becomes not about the stressor but
rather about the possible future event.
○ Example - I failed a test now I’m going to be homeless and live in a
van down by the river.
● Globalization - this is a negative way of explaining stressors where you
take one bad thing and apply it to multiple situations. The stress becomes
not about the stressor but about the totality of your problems.
○ Example - I failed a test now I am dumb and everyong knows I’m
dumb.
Ok ok, so it has to do with appraisal but my
appraisal is trash. What can I do to make it
better.
 Stress Hardy
● Commitment
○ Having a sense of purpose for what you are doing
○ Intrinsic motivation
○ Personal values
○ Goals
● Healthy Control
○ Internal Locus of Control vs. External Locus of Control
○ A healthy perspective on control helps you focus on events you can influence and
stop worrying about things you can’t.
● Change as Challenge
○ View change as an opportunity to learn and grow.
○ Growth mindset vs. fixed mindset
 How does our body react to stress?

● When alerted by any of a number of brain pathways, the

sympathetic nervous system arouses us, preparing the
body for the adaptive response Walter Cannon called fight-
or-flight.
● It increases heart rate and respiration, diverts blood from
digestion to the skeletal muscles, dulls feelings of pain, and
releases sugar and fat from the body’s stores
 General Adaptation Syndrome

● Selye proposed that the body’s adaptive response to stress

is so general that, like a single burglar alarm, it sounds, no
matter what intrudes. He named this response the general
adaptation syndrome (GAS).
● Hans Selye saw the general adaptation syndrome as a
three-phase process of alarm, resistance and exhaustion.
What is alarm? In Phase 1, an alarm
reaction, occurs as the
sympathetic nervous system
is suddenly
activated.
The heart rate zooms and
blood is diverted to the
skeletal muscles.
Feelings of faintness of shock
may occur.
Resources are mobilized, and
fight/flight or freeze is
activated.
What is resistance? During Phase 2, resistance,
temperature, blood pressure,
and respiration remain
high. The adrenal glands pump
hormones into the
bloodstream. All resources are
summoned to meet the
challenge.
As time passes, with no relief
from stress, the body’s
reserves begin to dwindle.
 What is
exhaustion?
Phase 3, exhaustion

With exhaustion, the body

becomes more vulnerable to
illness or even, in extreme
cases, collapse and death.
How does the stress
response work?

The immune system is

a complex surveillance
system. When it
functions properly, it
maintains health by
isolating and destroying
bacteria, viruses, and
other invaders.
 How does stress increase
vulnerability to disease?

Surgical wounds heal more

slowly in stressed people.
Stressed people are more
vulnerable to colds.
Stress can hasten the
course of disease.
 What does the
research show?

When researchers
dropped a cold virus
into people’s noses,
47 percent of those
living stress-filled lives
developed colds.

(Cohen et al., 1991)

 Does stress cause cancer?

Stress does not create cancer cells.

But in a healthy, functioning immune system,

lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells search out
and destroy cancer cells and cancer-damaged
cells.
If stress weakens the immune system, might this
weaken a person’s ability to fight off cancer?
 Why are some of us more prone to
coronary heart disease than others?
About 610,000 Americans die annually from
heart disease.
(CDC, 2016a)

High blood pressure and a family history of the disease

increase the risk.

So do smoking, obesity, an unhealthy diet, physical inactivity,

and a high cholesterol level.
 How does stress impact
coronary heart disease?
Stress and personality play a big role in
heart disease.

The more psychological trauma people experience,

the more their bodies generate inflammation, which is
associated with heart and other health problems,
including depression .
(Haapakoski et al., 2015; O’Donovan et al., 2012)
 What studies have been conducted?

In a classic study, Meyer Friedman, Ray Rosenman,

and their colleagues tested the idea that
stress increases vulnerability to heart disease by
measuring the blood cholesterol level and clotting
speed of 40 U.S. male tax accountants at different
times of year.
(Friedman & Ulmer, 1984)
 What were the results?

From January through March, the test results were completely normal.

But as the accountants began scrambling to finish their clients’ tax

returns before the April 15 filing deadline, their cholesterol and clotting
measures rose to dangerous levels.

In May and June, with the deadline past, the measures returned to
normal.

For these men, stress predicted heart attack risk.

 What follow up research was conducted by
Freidman and Rosenman?
Friedman and Rosenman launched a longitudinal study of more
than 3000 healthy men, aged 35 to 59.

The researchers interviewed each man for 15 minutes, noting

his work and eating habits, manner of talking, and other
behavior patterns.

After the interviews, the subjects were classified as having

either Type A or Type B personalities.
 What characterizes a
Type A personality?

The subjects in Friedman and

Rosenman’s study who seemed the
most
reactive, competitive, hard-driving,
impatient, time-conscious, super-
motivated, verbally aggressive, and
easily angered they called Type A.
What characterizes a
Type B personality?

The roughly equal number of

men in Friedman and
Rosenman’s study who were
more easygoing and relaxed
they called
Type B.
 What were the findings of the longitudinal
study?

Nine years later, 257 men had suffered heart attacks,

and 69 percent of them were Type A.

Moreover, not one of the “pure” Type B’s—the most

mellow and laid-back of their group—had suffered a
heart attack.
 Why are Type A
personalities more prone to
coronary heart disease?

Further research demonstrates

that
Type A’s toxic core is negative
emotions—especially the anger
associated with an aggressively
reactive temperament.
 Does stress cause illness?

Stress may not directly cause illness, but it does make us more
vulnerable, by influencing our behaviors and our physiology.
7.5 Introduction to Personality

The set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors

that are characteristic of a person and consistent
over time and in different situations

Psychodynamic, Humanistic and Social Cognitive

Theories will explain WHY

Trait theories will try to describe and measure it.

7.6a Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

Unconscious
Ego
Id
Super Ego
Defense Mechanisms
Psychosexual Development
Fixated
Oral Stage
Anal Stage
Phallic Stage
Oedipus Complex-Castration Anxty
Electra Complex-Penis Envy
Genital Stage
Latency Stage
 Psychodynamic
Theories
Sigmund Behavior is the product of psychological Neo-
Freud forces within the individual, often Freudians
outside of conscious awareness

Central
Tenets
1) Much of mental life is unconscious. People may behave in ways they themselves don’t
understand.
2) Mental processes act in parallel, leading to conflicting thoughts and feelings.
3) Personality patterns begin in childhood. Childhood experiences strongly affect personality
development.
4) The development of personality involves learning to regulate this internal conflicts
Sigmund Freud
Backdrop of Freud’s Intellectual World
• Darwin – Man is not special and can be studied
like any other part of the natural order

• Helmholtz – Law of the Conservation

of Energy

• Brucke – all living organisms are ‘energy systems’

Freud combines all of this:
• The human PERSONALITY is an energy
system
• It is the job of psychology to investigate
the change, transmission and
conversion of this ‘psychic energy’
within the personality which shape and
determine it.
These Drives are the ‘Energy’
• Eros (Life Instinct)
– Covers all the self-preserving
and erotic instincts
– Libido is the most important
of all – seen as sexual energy

• Thanatos (Death Instinct)

– Covers all the instincts
Levels of the Mind
Levels of the Mind
• The preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be
brought into the conscious mind.
• The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings,
and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the
aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about
rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of
consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into
awareness.
• The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and
memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The
unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant,
such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
Structure of the Mind
• Tripartite Theoretical Model
– Id
– Super-ego
– Ego
Unconscious
Common Motif in Pop Culture
Id
• Our baby-like self
∙ “pleasure principle” - Oriented toward
immediate unconditional gratification
of desires and avoidance of pain
∙ Libido
∙ Irrational
Id has no contact with outside world
Pleasure through
•Reflex action
•Wish fulfillment - (fantasy)
a mental image that satisfies
the instinct
Wish fulfillment
Wishfulfillment
Superego

• Moral center - “should”, “should not”

∙ We internalize the moral code of our society
∙ Guilt
▪ Irrational striving for moral perfection
▪ Ego Ideal – perfect standards of what one would like
to be
Learned, not present at birth
Ego
∙ Deals with reality - “reality principle”
∙ Has to negotiate demands of the id with
the reality of living in society and with
the demands of the super ego.
∙ rational
Id has no contact with outside world
What happens when the Id and
Super-ego can’t reconcile
• The psychic energy has to go
somewhere!
• Id won’t let it go
• Super-ego won’t let it happen
• To protect itself the organism employs
defense mechanisms.
Defense mechanisms

• Denial: refusal to acknowledge a painful or threatening

EVENT.

• Repression: refusal to to acknowledge painful or threatening

EMOTIONS

• Intellectualization: detaching from those emotions by instead

focusing on problem solving and not emotions
Defense mechanisms
• Displacement: move inappropriate feelings about one
person (usually anger) to vent at a safe source.

• Projection: you move the criticism of yourself to another

person

• Reaction Formation: expressing the opposite of the emotion

you are feeling.

• Regression: revert to childlike behavior

• Identification: taking on someone else’s characteristics that

your superego identifies with
Sublimation
Thin line Between the conscious and unconscious

• Sometimes our unconscious thoughts,

etc slip into the conscious.
• How?
– “Freudian slips”
– Dreams
– Humor
So how does this play out
• Humans are driven by the desire for
bodily sexual pleasure (libido)– it
gets released from different centers
at different times.
• But the parents act as the social
coercion to balance these desires. –
‘Super-ego givers’
Psychosexual stages
Freud said the centers of our libido
changes during development. Each stage
has a crisis we need to solve. If we don’t
personality problems or illness results.

Fixations are problems that arise due to

the crisis not being resolved correctly.
“Psychosexual” Stages of development
– Oral: 0–18months
• Sucking (Weaning)
• Fixation – Gullible or Cynical
– Anal: 18months–3
• Defecation (Potty training)
• Fixation – Self Destructive vs.
Anal Retentive
– Phallic: 3-5/6
• Genitals (Oedipus Complex /
Castration Anxiety)
• Fixation Egotism (playa or ho) or The Official Portrait of the Danish
low self-esteem Royal Family by Newcastle
painter James Brennan.
So how does this play out
– Latency 5/6 – 12/13
• all libidinal activity is
suppressed.
– Genital Stage – To
puberty and beyond!
• genitals and orgasm.
• Focused on reproduction
Oedipus Complex
• Phase One
– Boy has a libidinal bond with the mother (breast
feeding and mother as primary caregiver)
– Parallel to this, the boy begins to identify with his
father, the figure parallel to him in terms of
biological sex. (Identification with the father's
role as "lover" of mother.)
– In this phase, these 2 relationship exist side-by-
side and in relative harmony.
Oedipus Complex
• Boy’s feelings Intensify
• Sees the father as an obstacle and a rival
who he desires to get rid of or to kill.
• Worries the father will castrate him.
• Boy is never 100% hostile. He keeps the
identification so he is torn – ambivalence
• Boy hopefully turns his psychic energy into
full-on identification with the father. “Can’t
beat’em, join’em.”
• Boy is masculinized, eventually seeks his own
sexual partner
Castration Anxiety
• This fear or threat becomes real upon
the observation of the female genitalia,
which appear to be "castrated”
• Sources of the castration complex:
• Punishment for affectionate feelings for Mother
• Punishment for masturbation
• Punishment for bed-wetting
The "negative" outcome

• He identifies with the Mother so much that the

father becomes the focus of his libidinal interests
• The boy exhibits "girl-like" behavior
• He assumes an affectionate, feminine attitude
toward the father (instead of feeling ambivalence)
• Develops jealousy or even hostility toward the
mother.
• According to Freud, this can lead to . . . .
Freud’s Case Study: Little Hans
• Would not go outside for fear of being bitten by a
horse
• Hans has said he wanted to sleep with his mother,
“coax with” or caress her, be married to her, and
have children “just like daddy.”
• His parents warned that if he continued to play with
his “widdler” (penis), it would be cut off. He noticed
that his sister had no “widdler.”
• Hans wanted his mother all to himself, was jealous
of his father, and feared his mother would prefer his
father’s bigger widdler.
• Hans was most afraid of horses with black muzzles,
• The Phobia started after Hans had “accidentally”
knocked a statue of a horse from its stand.
The Electra Complex
• But what about girls?
• During the phallic stage the daughter becomes
attached to her father and more hostile
towards her mother.
• Believes that mom is responsible for her not
having a penis.
• This is due mostly to the idea that the girl is
"envious" of her father's penis thus the term
"penis-envy".
• This leads to resentment towards her mother,
who the girl believes caused her castration.
Implications
• Girls seek compensation for the "lost" penis;
• They find this in the baby upon whom they can
heap affection.
• The sense of "motherhood" results from the
castration complex, the sense of "loss" or
"inadequacy" based on an "inferior" physical
endowment in the genital region.
7.6b Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

Carl Jung
Collective Unconscious
Archetypes
Persona
Alfred Adler
Compensation
Inferiority Complex
Karen Horney
Anxiety
Neurotic Trends
 Freud and the Neo Freudians

Jung Adler Horney

Freud Collective Inferiority Anxiety
Id/Ego/Superego Unconscious Compensations Neurotic Trends
Libido Archetypes Complexes
 Carl Jung

Collective Unconscious - the collective

conscious refers to the idea that a segment of
the deepest unconscious mind is genetically
inherited and not shaped by personal
experience.

It is responsible for a number of deep-seated

beliefs and instincts, such as spirituality, sexual
behavior, and life and death instincts.
 Jung’s Archetypes

Jung believed that the collective unconscious is expressed through universal

archetypes. Archetypes are signs, symbols, or patterns of thinking and/or
behaving that are inherited from our ancestors.

Common Archetypes
Anima - the inner feminine side of men.
Animus- describe the masculine side of women
Persona: The mask we use to conceal our inner selves to the outside world
Shadow: The psyche's immoral and dark aspects
 Jungian Archetypes

● Hero: Starting with a humble birth, then overcoming evil and death
● Trickster: The child seeking self-gratification, sometimes being cruel and
unfeeling in the process
● Wise old man: The self as a figure of wisdom or knowledge
 Alfred Adler

Inferiority - According to Adler, all humans have a feeling of inferiority and

inadequacy immediately as they begin to experience the world. They are
surrounded by powerful adults and naturally feel all that they are not.

Compensation - is the striving for a personally defined superiority. It is the

attempt to move upward from a place of inferiority to a place of superiority.

In this sense Adler is the father of Humanism.

 Inferiority Complex

Arises when you can’t compensate.

If your feelings of inferiority become too strong and you lack courage to strive
for health growth, it can result in the “Inferiority Complex”.

chronic feelings of inadequacy and insecurity

 Superiority Complex

● If you have an inferiority complex but you

cannot accept your incapable self, it can
result in a “Superiority Complex”.
● You then overcompensate in other areas
often looking for an easy way out of
inferiority.
● This is how they enter the never ending
circle of feeling inferior trying to feel better
with fake superiority ending up feeling
worse.
 Adler’s Style of Life

Adler felt he could distinguish four primary types of style. A fixed ideal that that
child determines by 4-5. Three of them he said to be "mistaken styles".

These include:
● the ruling type: aggressive, dominating people who don't have much social
interest or cultural perception;
● the getting type: dependent people who take rather than give;
● the avoiding type: people who try to escape life's problems and take little
part in socially constructive activity.
● the socially useful type: people with a great deal of social interest and
activity.
 Karen Horney

● She believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety caused by

interpersonal relationships.

● Horney's theory proposed that strategies used to cope with anxiety can be
overused, causing them to take on the appearance of needs or neurotic
trends.
Horney’s Coping Styles
7.8 Humanistic Theories of Personality

Carl Rogers
Ideal Self vs Perceived Self
Unconditional Positive Regard
Maslow’s Self Actualization
 Psychodynamic vs. Humanistic Psychology

Psychodynamic psychology is concerned with the unconscious. Aside from

Adler, Freud and the neo-Freudians they see it as something that will
continuously cause conflict and pull you down.

Humanistic psychology believes in the HUMAN potential and believes that

you can improve and get better. It is much more optimistic.
 Carl Rogers

● Founder of humanistic psychology

● Developed client-centered therapy
● You want to link him
○ Ideal Self vs Perceived Self
○ Unconditional Positive regard
○ Fully functioning person
 Ideal vs. Perceived Self

Ideal Self - How one wants to be vs. Perceived Self - someone’s self concept
right now. The closer the two the more congruence.
 Unconditional Positive Regard

This is how you move the circles together to create congruence

Give the person acceptance for who they are now and for who they want to be.
Do not force an identity or narrative onto them.

Do this and find congruence and become Fully functioning.

 Fully Functioning Person

● This person has received unconditional positive regard from others and
does not place conditions on their own worth.
● They are also capable of expressing feelings and are fully open to life's
many experiences.
● They are able to live fully in the moment. They experience a sense of
inner freedom and embrace creativity, excitement, and challenge.
 Self Actualization

Self-actualization is the full realization of one’s creative, intellectual, and

social potential through internal drive (verses for external rewards like money,
status, or power).

Since self-actualization is based on using one’s abilities to reach their

potential, it is a very individual process and will probably vary significantly
from person to person.
7.7 Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theories of
Personality

Cognitive Theory
Expectancies
Performance Standards
Self-Efficacy
External Locus of Control
Internal Locus of Control
Collectivist vs Individualistic cultures
 Cognitive-Social Learning Theories in Personality
• Albert Bandura
• We each have a set of personal standards that grew
out of our own life history and thus shape our
behavior.
• In this light, behavior is seen as the interaction of
personal factors, learning/behavior, and the current
social environment.
Outline
Expectancies = schema
• What a person expects from a situation or from their
own behavior
• people evaluate situations based on these
• Expectancies are formed from personal
preferences/past experiences
• The actual feedback will in turn mold future
expectancies
Expectancies form Performance Standards.
• This leads people to conduct themselves
according to performance standards
– Individually determined standards of
excellence by which we judge our behavior
– If you meet your own performance
standards then you get . . .
Self-efficacy
• The expectancy that your efforts will
be successful
• Learned helplessness is the opposite
of self-efficacy
Cognitive-Social Learning Theories in Personality

Attitudes
Social Norms Expectations
Influences of Performance
the group Standards
Self-Efficacy
Environment Person
Peers neg reinforce Introvert
behavior by removing chaos
Expectancy of “chaos”
Teacher follows social Performance Standard -
norms and reinforces “good girl”
behavior Self Efficacy

Behavior
Speaks quietly
Doesn’t join at recess
Teacher can’t hear
response
Withdraws from recess
Remains respectfully quiet
Locus of control
• a common expectancy (Julian Rotter) by which
people view a situation
– Internal locus of control – they can control their own fate. Through hard
work, skill, and training, they can find reinforcements and avoid
punishments
– External locus of control – do not believe they control their own fate.
Instead they are convinced that chance, luck, and the behavior of others
determines their destiny and that they are helpless to change the course
of their lives. – learned helplessness
7.9 Trait Theories of Personality

16 Personality Factors
Factor Analysis
Big 5 Traits
 Traits

● Long term personal characteristics

● Stable across situations
● Stabilize around adulthood
Factor Analysis - Basic
Idea
 Big Five Correlates

● Openness typically shows positive correlations with IQ test performance

● Conscientiousness has a moderate to large positive correlation with
performance in the workplace
● Extraversion was positively correlated with average national levels of
happiness and life satisfaction
● Agreeableness is negatively correlated with income and professional status.
● Neuroticism had significant, positive correlations with maladaptive CERS
strategies (self-blame, acceptance, rumination, catastrophizing, and other-
blame) and depressive symptoms (ps < 0.001).
7.10 Measuring Personality

Projective Tests
Rorschach Inkblot
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Objective Tests
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Projective Test: Rorschach Inkblot
Examples of Rorschach Inkblot
 Projective Test: Thematic Apperception Test

Involves showing people a series of picture cards depicting a variety of ambiguous

characters (that may include men, women, and/or children), scenes, and situations.

They are then asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture
presented, including:

what has led up to the event shown

what is happening in the scene
the thoughts and feelings of characters
the outcome of the story
 How is it used?

● To learn more about a person. In this way, the test acts as something of an icebreaker
while providing useful information about potential emotional conflicts the client may
have.
● To help people express their feelings. The TAT is often used as a therapeutic tool to
allow clients to express feelings in a non-direct way. A client may not yet be able to
express a certain feeling directly, but they might be able to identify the emotion when
viewed from an outside perspective.
● To explore themes related to the person's life experiences. Clients dealing with
problems such as job loss, divorce, or health issues might interpret the ambiguous
scenes and relating to their unique circumstances, allowing deeper exploration over the
course of therapy.
Examples of TAT
 MMPI

● The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a

psychological test that assesses personality traits and psychopathology. It
is primarily intended to test people who are suspected of having mental
health or other clinical issues.
● The MMPI-2 is designed with 10 clinical scales which assess 10 major
categories of abnormal human behavior, and four validity scales, which
assess the person’s general test-taking attitude and whether they answered
the items on the test in a truthful and accurate manner.
 How was it made?

For an item to appear on a specific scale, it had to be answered significantly

differently by a group of patients who were independently determined to have
the problem of the scale’s focus. For instance, for the hypochondriasis scale,
the researchers looked at a group of 50 hypochondriacs. They then had to
compare this group with a group of people who had no psychiatric problems
— a normal population that served as a reference group. The original MMPI
was normed on 724 individuals who were friends or relatives of patients in the
University Hospitals in Minneapolis, and who were not currently receiving
treatment from a doctor.